ブライアン・セイヤーズ：外国語学部英米語学科専任講師
John O’Mahony
─Architect of irish independence (1815-1877)
1）─
ブライアン・セイヤーズ
Brian SAYERS
Keywords：IrishHistory,IrishLiterature,IrishIdentity キーワード：アイルランド史、アイルランド文学、アイリッシュ・アイデンティティ 1. Life Inviewofhissignificance,itissurprisingthatJohnO’Mahonyhasbeenthemost overlookedfigureinmidtolatenineteenth-centuryIreland.Asanationalistleader,O’ MahonybuilttheFenianBrotherhoodintotheforemostmovementforIrishindependencein thenineteenthcentury,andperhapsever.Thiswasaneventofmomentoushistoric importance,whichtheBritishgovernmentknewtheycouldnotignore.AsaGaelic revivalist,O’MahonywasapioneerandavisionaryfromwhomthefirstPresidentof IndependentIreland,DouglasHyde,drewinspiration.Onemayspeculateastothereasons whynohistorianhasattemptedafull-lengthbiographyofO’Mahonyuptonow.Aswellas thedisparatenatureofthesourcematerialtoberesearchedinbothIrelandandAmerica, thecomplexandmultifacetednatureofthesubjectmakesanyattemptatcategorization highlychallenging. InordertounderstandO’Mahonyitisessentialtoilluminatethevariousfactorsthat moldedhimandcentraltothisistheexplorationofhisfamilybackground.Itwouldappear thattheearliestO’MahonyswhocametotheMitchelstowntri-countyborderareafirst settledinthedistrictofKilbeheny,CountyLimerick.WehaveO’Mahony’swordforitthat hisforebearswereintheKilbehenydistrictduringthemid-seventeenthcenturywhen‘as proscribedoutlawstheyfoundrefugeinthefastnessesoftheGaltees.2）Thiswas probablyintheglenofAherlowfollowingtheCromwellianwars. InthelatterpartoftheeighteenthcenturyJohnO’Mahony’sgrandfather,ThomasO’ Mahony,wasanextensivelandholderandmiddlemaninCountiesCork,Limerickand Tipperary.OntherelaxationofthePenalLawswefindThomasO’Mahonyrentingfromthelargestlandownersintheregion,theKingfamily,over1,200acresofthelandsofKilbeheny. TheO’MahonyswererenownedinthedistrictsouthoftheGalteeMountainsfortheir capacityandreadinesstoprovidelocalleadershipinvariousnationalmovementsdown throughthegenerations.Duringthe1798risingThomasO’Mahony’seldestson,Daniel, mobilizedtheUnitedIrishmeninthedistrictaroundRathkeale,WestLimerick,wherehe thenlived.Thomas’ssecondsonorganizedthoseintheCork-Limerick-Tipperaryborderland areanearthefootoftheGaltees.3）ItisrecordedthatThomasO’Mahonywasdispossessed ofallhishouseholdpossessionsandfarmlivestockandthathistwoeldestsonswere imprisonedforatimefortheirroleintheUnitedIrishmen.Atlengththetwobrotherswere liberatedunderheavyrecognizancesandtheywouldappearatsessionsandassizesinCork, Limerick,andTipperaryforsomeyearsafter.4） ThomasO’Mahony’seldestson,DanielO’Mahony,marriedMaryO’Ryan5） ofBallycurkeen,CountyTipperary.ThecouplemadetheirhomeatClonkilla6）near Mitchelstown,CountyCork.DanielandMaryO’Mahony’sfirstsonThomasDanielwasborn in1812.TheirsecondsonJohn(thesubjectofthislecture)wasbornthreeyearslaterin 1815andtheironlydaughterJaneMariawasbornin1817.7） WhileDanielO’Mahonyprovidedadirectexampleofpoliticalactiontohissonsand daughter,hewasalsodeeplyconcernedwiththeirformallearning.DanielO’Mahonyhad himselfreceivedagoodeducationinHarrington’sschool,Cobh,CountyCork.8）Private educationavailabletothefamiliesofprosperousfarmersofJohnO’Mahony’sgeneration includedinstructioninIrishandEnglish,aswellasGreek,LatinandHebrew,andoften includedFrench.AtacertainpointThomasDanielenrolledinaClassicalSchoolinMidleton, CountyCork,andwaslaterfollowedbyJohn.9）BothbrotherswentonfromMidletonto TrinityCollegeDublin:ThomasDanielin1830,followedbyJohnin1833.10） ThetranscriptionofGaelicmanuscriptswasstillawidespreadactivitythroughout Munsterwellintothenineteenthcentury.Poets,scribesandteachersfreelymigratedacross theregionasdidtheircounterpartsinGaelicmedievalIreland.11）Adominantinfluencein JohnO’Mahony’sintellectualformationwasthathegrewupinahouseholdwheretheGaelic traditionhadbeencultivatedandpreserved.GentlemenfarmerssuchastheO’Mahonys werethestrongestclassinthecultivationofGaelicscholarship.Thisincludedthe commissioningofGaelicmanuscriptsaswellastheircollectionandstorage. ByO’Mahony’stimetheGaelicoraltraditionwasindangerofbeingirretrievablylostas thedeclineinthepublicappreciationoftheIrishlanguagecontinued.Inresponsetothis situationO’Mahonytraveledextensivelythroughoutthesouthernhalfofthecountry diligentlycollectingmanuscriptsandrecordingGaelicsongsandpoetryrecitedtohimorally.
O’MahonywaspartoftheGaelicscholarlycommunitynotonlyinitsruralheartlandbutalso involvingthoseactiveintheurbancenters.Theinstanceofaprosperouslandholderliving simultaneouslythelifeofagentlemanfarmerandscholarwasnotararityinlateeighteenth andearlynineteenthcenturyIreland.12）AlltheindicationsarethatO’Mahonycouldhave spenthisentirelifecontentedlyfollowinghisintellectualinterestshadnotfateand politicalforcesdecreedotherwise.O’Mahony’sscholarlypursuitswouldbeseverely interruptedbyeventsin1848. BytheFallof1847theeffectsofthegreatfaminewerewreakinghavocamongthe poorersectionsofruralIrishsocietythroughdeathfromhungeranditsassociateddiseases. Thefailureofthepotatocrop,forthethirdsuccessiveyear,andtheutterlyinadequate responseoftheBritishadministrationtothecrisis,leftmillionsfacingstarvation.Whether throughineptnessordeliberatepolicy,thedeathtollwasmaximizedbymakingthoseindire needentirelydependentuponrelief,whichwasthenwithdrawnwhenthecrisisreachedits heightin‘black‘47.’13）Thisensuredtheuttercatastrophe.Againstabackgroundofthe starvingpoorbeingdestroyedbymassevictions,thespectacleofmilitarydetachments guardingconvoysofgrainasitwastransportedoutofthecountry,stokedtheflammable revolutionarymaterialamongthehungrymassesreadytoexplode. O’Mahonywaskeenlyawareofwhathiscommunityexpectedofhimandhisrolecanbe describedsuccinctlyasthatofthe‘Gaelicchief.’Thiswasexemplifiedbythepartplayedby hisgrandfather,fatheranduncle.Moreoveritwouldappearthatthistraditionofleadership extendedbackthroughmanyearliergenerationsofthefamily.AlthoughtheGaelicsystem hadlongsincecollapsed,stillinO’Mahony’stimetheauraoftheGaelicchiefpersisted.Asa phenomenonthiswasrareintheeighteenthcenturyandevenmoresointhe nineteenth.WiththepossibleexceptionoftheinfluenceofArthurO’Connorin1798,there hadnotbeensucharallyingpointfortheIrishspeakingpopulationsincethearrivalof EoghanRuaÓNéilltoIrelandin1642.Aseventswouldunfold,historywouldwitnessinO’ Mahony’sactsovertheensuingmonthsof1848theGaelicchiefpersonallydirectingand leadinghisfollowers. ForsevenweeksintheFallof1848O’Mahonyconductedaguerrillacampaignagainst themilitaryandpoliceintheTipperary-Waterford-Kilkennyborderarea.Duringthose weekshistacticscausedpanicamongtheforcesofthecrownandcompelledthepoliceto withdrawfromanumberoflocations.Unfortunatelyfortheinsurgents,thelackof experiencedlieutenantstoexecuteO’Mahony’splans,togetherwiththefailureofthepeople toobeyanyleaderotherthanhim,precludedthedevelopmentofafullydisciplinedforcein 1848.O’MahonymadesurethatthissituationwouldnotberepeatedinFeniantimes,when
spontaneousinsurrectionwasreplacedbyafully-fledgedmilitaryorganizationwithan adequatesupplyofwelltrainedandcompetentofficerstoimplementhisrevolutionary policies. Theeventsof1848andthelessonslearnedtherefromburneddeeplyintoO’Mahony’s soulanddeterminedthecoursethathislifewouldtake.Uptothesummerofthatfateful yearhehadlivedthecontentedlifeofagentlemanfarmerandscholar.O’Mahony gaveuphiscomfortablelifestylebecauseofaninheritedsenseofresponsibilitytowardshis people.Thisresolveforcedhimfromhishomeandresultedinthelossofthelifestylethathe enjoyed.ItalsomarkedthebeginningofO’Mahony’slifelongcommitmenttorevolutionary politics. Aftertheterminationofactiveinsurrectioninlate1848,O’MahonyescapedtoWales andthencetoFrancewherehelivedforthenextfiveyears.Butwhenhewentintoexile,O’ MahonyleftbehindalooserevolutionarystructurethathecouldsummoninCork,Limerick andTipperary,aswellaspartsofKilkennyandWaterford,tobethenucleusforanyfuture Irishrevolutionarymovement.Thus,therevolutionarynetworknurturedbyO’Mahonyin late1848survivedand,almostadecadelater,itwouldbecomethecrucialnetworkofthe newrevolutionarymovementintheregion. O’MahonywasfirstandforemostanIrishseparatist-andtheonlywayofadvocating Irishsovereigntyforhimwasasarepublican.Hisrepublicanismwasshapedbythe teachingsoftheUnitedIrishmenandbythelocalleadershipthathisfatheranduncle providedtotheinsurgentsin1798.14）Asaconsequenceitwasseparatistinthrustand inclusiveinaspirationwithastrongaversiontowardsanyformofprivilege.Duringhisyears inFrance,O’MahonyformedastrongsenseofsolidaritywithFrenchRepublicansinthe generalstruggleforaconfederationofRepublicswhichwouldsupporteachother.Atrue revolutionary,hesawtheattempttoachieveademocraticegalitarianrepublicforIrelandas beinganintegralpartofabroaderinternationalmovementwhichembracedasalliesall fellowrepublicansandincludedhopesfortheliberationofthepeopleofGreatBritain. Inlate1853O’MahonydepartedFrancefortheUnitedStates.Followinghisarrivalin NewYorkinJanuary1854,O’Mahonyenlistedasaprivateinthe69thRegimentoftheNew YorkStateMilitia.HealsobecamethecaptainofanewIrishmilitarycompany, ‘TheEdwardFitzgeraldGuard’,organizedon7Aprilofthatyear.Thepreviousmonth GreatBritainandFrancehaddeclaredwaronRussia.InordertotakeadvantageofGreat Britain’sinvolvementintheCrimeanwar,O’MahonytogetherwithotherIrishresidentsin NewYorkCityfoundedanewIrishrevolutionaryorganization-theEmmetMonument Association.AchiefcomponentofO’Mahony’srevolutionarystrategywastoavailofa
potentialopportunitytoobtainmilitaryassistanceforanIrishinsurrectionfromanymajor poweratwarwithGreatBritain.In1854thatpowerwasRussia.Sometimeinearly1855, O’MahonysucceededininitiatingnegotiationswiththeRussianconsulinNewYorkCitywith aviewtoobtainingfromtheCzar’sgovernmentthemeansoftransportationtoIrelandofan Irish-Americanexpeditionof2,000menandadditionalarmsfor50,000moretobelandedin Ireland.Amemorialoutliningtheserequirementswaswrittenundertheguidanceofthe RussianconsulandsentwithoutdelaytoStPetersburgwhereitwasfavorablyreceived. ThesetalkswereongoingwhentheCrimeanWarcametoanendinMarch1856.15） Withthelullinpoliticalactivity,O’MahonybeganworkingonhistranslationofSeathrún Céitinn’sForas feasa ar Éirinn.O’MahonycompletedthisworkoftranslationinJuly1857. InnineteenthcenturyIreland,aswasthecasefromtheearlyseventeenthcentury,theIrish languagehadvirtuallynorecognitionintheinstitutionsofthestate.Followingthe establishmentoftheschoolsystemin1831,themediumofinstructionwasEnglishfora populationwhichwaspredominantlyIrish-speaking,andmostofthemweremonoglots. WhenO’MahonypublishedhistranslationofCéitinn’sForas feasa ar Éirinn,theonly languagethatthemajorityofIrish PeoplecouldreadwasEnglish.Thissituationmadea workoftranslationanecessityformostIrish People. AtthistimeintheUnitedStatesthe‘Know-Nothings’(stronglyanti-Negro,anti-Irish,and anti-Catholic)disseminatedtheviewthattheAnglo-Saxonsweremorallysuperiortothe Celtsandothers.16）ThiswastheenvironmentinwhichO’Mahonytriedtogenerateasense ofkinshipamonghisfellowcountrymenandtore-awakeninthemanappreciationoftheir cultureandtraditions.O’Mahonydirectedhisworkoftranslationtowardsthiswider readershipratherthanspecificallytoGaelicscholars.ThepublicationofO’Mahony’sbook wasfollowedoneweeklaterbyhislaunchingofaGaeliccolumnintheIrish American,the firstandonlyperiodicalatthetimewithsuchafeature.17）ThiswouldencourageIrish emigrantsintheUnitedStatestobecomeliterateintheirnativetongue.IntheGaelic columnsoftheIrish AmericantheoriginalIrishwaspresentedsidebysidewithanEnglish translationandaccompaniedbyextensivenoteswrittenbyO’Mahony.18）Muchofthe materialincludedthereinconsistedofpreviouslyunpublishedGaelicpoetryandsongstaken frommanuscriptsinhispossessionandthatofotherIrishresidentsinNewYork. InMay1857apotentialopportunityforinsurrectioninIrelandpresenteditselfasa resultofBritishinvolvementonanotherfront:anuprisingbrokeoutinIndiaasamutinyof SepoysintheBritishEastIndiaCompany’sarmy.WhatcommencedasaSepoyrevoltsoon developedintoawidespreadinsurrectionacrossNorthernIndia.Thissituationresultedin thefoundationofanewrevolutionarymovementinNewYorkCitywhichaimedat
establishinganindependentIrishrepublic.O’MahonywaselectedasitsPresident.Helater choseitsname-theFenianBrotherhood-inevocationoftheancientFiannaofpopular tradition.AnIrishbranchofthenewrevolutionarymovementwasfoundedinDublininMarch 1858.ThisbecameknownastheIrishRevolutionaryBrotherhood(IRB). SinceMay1850severalIrishregimentshadbeenformedintheNewYorkStateMilitia. Inthespringof1859,anumberoftheleadingofficersintheseregimentsformedthePhoenix BrigadeoftheFenianBrotherhood.19）Itspurposewastoprovidemilitarytrainingfor IrishmeninAmericawithaviewtoembracinganopportunitytolandenougharmsand trainedsoldiersinIrelandforacoordinatedinsurrectionwiththeIRB. Inthe1860presidentialelection,theRepublicanPartycandidate,AbrahamLincoln,had stoodonaplatformwhichstronglyopposedthefurtherexpansionofslaveryinthenewly formedstatesofthewesternexpansion.FollowingLincoln’selectionasPresident,theissueof slaverycametoaheadbetweentheanti-slaverystatesoftheNorthandslave-owningstates oftheSouth.ThisledtothesecessionwhichwastheimmediatecauseoftheAmericanCivil War. Theoutbreakofthatconflicton12April1861wouldabsorbtheattentionandresources ofthemostactiveoftheFenianBrotherhoodasvastnumbersofitsleadingmilitarymen becameactivelyinvolvedinthewarforthefouryearsofitsduration.Amajorityofthese officerswereintheUnionarmy.ServiceintheAmericanarmieswouldenabletheFenians toobtainrealmilitaryexperience,whichwouldbecrucialtothesuccessofanyfuture operationoflandingamilitaryforceinIreland. DuringtheAmericanCivilWar,privateerswerebuiltandfittedoutinBritishportsand soldtotheConfederacy.TheuseofthesevesselsinthedestructionofUnionshipping causedwidespreadresentmenttowardsGreatBritainintheNorthernStatesandraisedthe possibilityofanAnglo-Americanconflict.20）Inlate1865O’Mahonyreceivedassurances fromsympatheticAmericanship-ownersinNewYork,BostonandPhiladelphiathatthey would‘fitoutprivateersforourcauseassoonaswecouldraisetheflagofourcountryover anIrisharmycapableofdefendingitevenforashorttime.’21） O’Mahony’ssympathieswereunequivocallywiththeUnioncause.InJanuary1864the PhoenixBrigade,composedentirelyofFeniansandcommandedbyO’Mahony,wasmerged intothe99thRegimentoftheNewYorkNationalGuard,thusbecomingeligibleforwar service.O’MahonywaselectedColonelofthe99thRegimentbutnotsurprisinglyheheldthis officemorenominallythandefactobecausehisresponsibilitieswiththeFenianBrotherhood madefulltimecommitmenttomilitaryactionintheUnionArmyimpossible.22）Inearly August1864theUnionmilitaryauthoritiescalledoutthe99thRegimentfordutytoguard
ConfederateprisonersattheUnionprisoncampinElmira,upstateNewYork.O’Mahony servedwiththe99thRegimentforthreemonthsinElmira.23） WiththeendingoftheAmericanCivilWarcamethedemobilizationoftheConfederate andUnionarmies.TheperformanceofIrishmenonthebattlefieldhadbeenexemplary. TheirsteadfastbraveryunderbattlestressgreatlyenhancedtheesteeminwhichtheIrish wereheldintheUnitedStatestoalevelhigherthaneverbeforeorforlongafter.Sworn Fenianswerenumerousamongtheofficersandmenservinginbotharmies.Thiswas especiallyevidentamongthoseservingintheUnionarmies,inwhoseranksFenianagents hadbeenpermittedtorecruitfreely.24）DuringtheyearsoftheAmericanCivilWar,andin itsimmediateaftermath,thereappearedtobesupportinthehighestlevelsoftheUnited StatesadministrationfortheaimsoftheFenianBrotherhood. FollowingO’Mahony’sdeathinFebruary1877,theFeniancounciltogetherwith delegatesfromvariousotherIrishsocietiesdecidedtosendhisremainshometoIrelandfor burialinGlasnevincemeteryDublin.ItwasestimatedthattheturnoutatO’Mahony’s funeralinDublinonSunday4March,numberedbetween70,000and100,000people.25） 2. Legacy ‘YoungIreland’wasthenamegiventoagroupofmenwhowereassociatedwiththe Nation,aweeklyjournalfoundedbyThomasDavis,CharlesGavanDuffyandJohnBlake DilloninDublinin1842.26）IncontrasttotheinfluencesactingonYoungIrelandemanating fromtheculturalcontemporarynationalistmovementsinEurope,O’Mahonywassteepedin thecultureoftheGailteMhórdistrict.Hehadabsorbedhisnativeculturethroughthe Gaelicpoemsandsongsrecitedaroundhimfrombirth.InthatrespectO’Mahonywas uniqueamongthenationalfiguresofhistime.ThismayhavebeenwhatJohnDevoy hadinmindwhenherecognizedthesignificanceofO’Mahonyinstatingthat‘O’Mahony knewtheIrishQuestiontheoreticallybetterthananyIrishmanofhisday.’27） ItisclearfromthenotesthathewrotetoaccompanyhistranslationofSeathrúnCéitinn’ sForas feasa ar Éirinn,thatO’MahonyhadaprofoundunderstandingoftheGaelicsocial system.Suchaperceptionundoubtedlymadehimkeenlysensitivetothesocialistteachingsof histime.ThroughouthiswritingspublishedinIrishnewspapersintheUnitedStates,O’ Mahonywashighlycriticaloftheimposedcapitalistsystemthatoperatedagainstthepeoples ofGreatBritainandIreland.Thiswasalsothebasisofthemutualunderstandingbetween BritishradicalsandIrishnationalistsintheperiodafter1848.28）IntheFenianjournal,the Irish People,of17December1870,O’MahonydescribestheeffectsofBritishcapitalism unfavorably,evenwhencomparedwithCzaristRussia:
Inanoligarchy,orunderanyformofmixedgovernment,whereMoneyis themasterandLabortheslave,everyindividualcapitalisthasitinhis powertoactthedespot;everymanwhoisnotfortunateenoughtobea capitalistfindsatyrantathisowndoor.Themostcogentexamplesofthe ruleofCapitalinthehandsofafavoredfew,andoftheAbsolutismofa singleindividual,aretobeseenintheconditionoftheworkingclassesof GreatBritainandRussiatoday.TheRussiandespotprotectstheindustrial classesfromtheoppressionofallkindsofpettytyrants.Theworkman whoselotiscastundertheboastedBritishConstitutionfindshimselfthe slaveofsomepettytyrantineveryvillageandeveryworkshop;sothat nowhereonearthishisconditionmoremiserableand degradedthaninGreatBritainandtheso-called“sister-island”atpresent.29） ThiswasintunewithJohnMitchelandalsoanticipatesthethinkingofJamesConnolly whocontendedinhisLabor in Irish historythatfreedomfortheworkingclassesofGreat BritainandIrelandhadtobeprecededbyseparationfromtheBritishcapitalistsystem.30） LikeConnolly,O’MahonystronglysupportedtheemergenceoftradeunionismintheUnited Statesand,inthatsamearticlepublishedintheIrish People,heexpressedtheviewthat: Themosthealthfulsignofthevitalityofdemocraticinstitutionsinthe UnitedStatesistobefoundintherapidandwidespreadofWorkingmen’s ProtectiveSocietiesorTrades’Unionsinourgreatcentersofmanufacturing andcommercialindustry.Inthemalonewecanhavehopeforanyeffective barrieragainstencroachmentsofthemoniedmonopolistsupontherights, liberties,andsocialhappinessoftheindustrioustoilingmasses,whoform theoverwhelmingmajorityofthecitizensofthisRepublic.31） OfalltheleadersofthevariousrevolutionarymovementsthatsprangfromIrish grievancessincethetimeoftheCromwellianconquest,O’Mahonystandsoutastheclearest representativeofthenativeGaelictradition.Aswellasbeingsteepedinhisownheritage,O’ Mahonywasparticularlywellfittedtoembracethediversityofothertraditions.Hetriedto inspireanationalidentityembracingalltheinhabitantsofIreland,whichheenvisagedwould naturallycoalesceintoaunifiedpeopleoncethegripofaforeignpowerwasremoved.Like TheobaldWolfeToneandThomasDavis,O’Mahony’sconceptoftheIrishnationwasa pluralistone.Thevaluesabsorbedbydirectexperienceofhisfamily’spoliticalcommitment
moldedO’Mahonyandthepoliciesheformulated,inparticulartherequirementofbuildinga broadbasedmovementfornationalindependence.HisFenianBrotherhoodwouldaimat being‘anorganizationwhichisnotcomposedexclusivelyofCatholicsbutopentocitizensof everycreedandnationalityprovidedtheybefriendsofIrishfreedom.’32）
IntheforewordtohistranslationofSeathrúnCéitinn’sForas feasa ar Éirinn,weare givenaremarkableinsightintotheinclusivenessofO’Mahony’snationalism: He[thetranslator,i.e.O’Mahony]has,itistrue,astrongpartialitytowards thenativesoftheIrishsoil,andhisheartglowswithamorekindlyheat towardsmenofancientGaelicnames-thisispartofhisinstinct;-buthe canalsoholdoutthefreehandofbrotherhoodtotheFrankandtheSaxon. Itisonlywhenhebecomesaninstrumentoftyrannythathostilityshould befelttowardsanyofone’sfellowmen.InIreland,moreespecially,the foreignelementhasbecomesoabsorbedintheaboriginal,thatitwouldbe asjusttothinkofavengingthewrongsoftheDanaanortheBelgianupon theirSpanishconquerors,asitwouldbethoseofthelatteruponthe followersofEarlStrongbow.ThesehavelongsincemergedintotheGael- sohavesomeofthedescendantsofthemorerecentconquerorsofthemall, theCromwelliansandWilliamitesoflaterdays.Theoppressednativesof Ireland,ofwhatevername,creedorblood,representtheancientrightsofits aboriginalinhabitants.Theirvillagetyrants,thoughsomeofthembeof Gaelicnameandblood,andafewofthemevenofthenationalfaith,are nowtheonlyforeignenemy.33） Here,O’Mahonyacknowledgesthecontributionofthemaintraditions-Gaelic,Viking, Anglo-NormanandEnglish/Scottish-tothenationalhistoryofIreland.Hepossesseda strongsenseofsocialjusticefortheoppressed,ofwhateverethnicorigin,classorreligion. ThischampioningtherightsofthedowntroddeninsocietyalsoprefiguresJamesConnolly whopointedoutinhisLabor in Irish historythat:
Intheevolutionofcivilizationtheprogressofthefightfornationalliberty ofanysubjectnationmust,perforce,keeppacewiththeprogressofthe struggleforlibertyofthemostsubjectclassinthatnation.34）
Irish People,andmostparticularlyontheGaelicspeakingpopulationandtheirculture.This experienceundoubtedlycontributedtohisstrongsenseofsolidaritywithallpeopleswho wereruledbyatyrannicalregime.O’Mahony’sgenuinehumanitarianismplacedhisfeelings offraternitywiththeoppressedevenabovehissenseofnationalcommitment.35）IntheNew YorkIrish Peopleof8July1871,thebreadthofO’Mahony’svisionisclearlyevident: Nonationalordomesticprejudiceshouldevercoerceustotakesideswith tyranny.HumanLibertygoesbeforeIrishpatriotism;or,tomakemyself moreclearlyunderstood,ifIrelandhadanindependentgovernment today,andifthatgovernmentweretheupholderoftyrannyand oppressioneitherathomeorinanyotherland,itwouldbeincumbentupon everyliberty-lovingIrishmantoaidintheoverthrowofthatgovernment. HumanitybeforeIrishpatriotism,butIrishpatriotismbeforetheadopted civismofanyforeigncountry.Nomerelynationalconsideration,eitherwith respecttoIrelandorAmerica,shouldeverbeallowedtoobstructforone momenttheforwardmarchofHumanLiberty.36） O’MahonylivedhislifeforthecauseofIrishindependenceandimplicitinthiswashis totalcommitmenttodemocracy.InO’Mahony’sperception,eversincethedestructionofthe Gaelicaristocracy,theonlyflagunderwhichIrishindependencecouldbeachieved wasthatofaRepublic.ThiswastheoneregimewhichcouldgivetheIrish Peoplethe righttohaveavoicetodeterminetheirownaffairs.InthisrespectaunionofGreatBritain andIrelandcouldneverbedemocratic.IrishnationalistMPswouldalwaysbeoutvotedin theBritishHouseofCommons,wheretheironlypotentialoflimitedpoliticalleveragewasto holdthebalanceofpower.Inanepistletohissister,JaneMariaMandeville,dated16 November1863,O’Mahonyreferredto‘theultrademocracyofmypoliticalphilosophy.’37） IntheIrish Peopleof10December1870,O’Mahonyexpressedhisopinionthat: ThetrueDemocratbelievesfirmlythatfarmorecanbedonetowardsthe extirpationofignorance,viceandmiseryfromamongnationsandcommunities underawellregulatedsystemofpopularself-governmentthanunderany otherform.Heseesthatkings,hierarchsandaristocratshavebeen tryingtheirhandandregulatingtheaffairsoftheworldfor,whoknows howmanythousandsofyears,whiletherelativeproportionofthecriminal, miserableordegradedportionofmankindtothemorevirtuous,happyand
honoredhasnotbeenlessenedduringallthistimeinanyverysensible degree.38） O’Mahonywasinfavorofademocraticegalitarianrepublic,basedonuniversalsuffrage, foranindependentIreland.Howeverhedidnotoutlinehissocialrevolutionaryprogramor howtheIrishegalitarianrepublicwouldoperatespecifically-itnevergotthatfar.Hissocial policyisleftwithoutfinalcomment.Asanegalitariandemocrat,O’Mahonybelievedthatit wasone’sabilityappliedtowardsthecommonwealthatcountedinpubliclife.Thisconviction wasreflectedinthestructureoftheFenianBrotherhood,whichwasanopenorganization whoseleadershipatalllevelswasbydemocraticelection.InthisrespecttheFenian BrotherhooddifferedfromallpreviousrevolutionarymovementsforIrishindependence, whichwereorganizedfromthetopdown.WhilethedemocraticconstitutionoftheFenian Brotherhoodfacilitatedthosewhoseactivitiesledtothesplitinthemovement,neverthelessit wasthesameegalitarianformthatensureditssurvivalsoastoultimatelybequeaththe dedicationtoIrishindependencetotheClannaGael.TheClannaGaelwasasecretIrish revolutionarymovementfoundedinNewYorkin1867. AmajorcontributionbyO’MahonytoIrishrevolutionarythinkingwashisformulationof theprerequisitesforanyfutureattemptatinsurrection:inparticularthenecessityfor externalfactorsproviding‘somepowerfulpressurefromwithout’39）-preferablyamajor internationalconflictinvolvingGreatBritain.Thiscomponentofhisrevolutionarythought, formulatedinlate1848,becameembeddedinthethinkingoftheIRBinIrelandandofthe FenianBrotherhoodanditslatersuccessortheClannaGaelinAmerica.Itwasalsothe blueprintintheIRB’splanningoftherisingthatfinallycamein1916. O’Mahonyneverguaranteedvictory-hepromised‘abravestand-upfight,’whichhe knewwouldhavetobringinanotherpowerasafinalarbiter.40）DuringhisyearsinFrance andsubsequentlyintheUnitedStates,O’Mahonywatchedforanopportunitytoobtain militaryassistancefromanypotentialadversaryofGreatBritain.Suchactivityinvolved seriousnegotiationsatvarioustimeswiththegovernmentsofFrance,RussiaandtheUnited States.Inalatergenerationthispolicywouldbere-enactedwhen,withindaysofthe outbreakoftheFirstWorldWar,inAugust1914,aClannaGaelcommitteemadecontact withtheGermanambassadorinWashington,DC,withaviewtoobtainingmilitary assistancefromGermany.41）Followingthelossof‘theAud’-theGermanshipthatcarried thearmstoIrelandforthe1916rising-andEoinMacNeill’ssubsequentcountermanding order,anyhopesforasuccessfulinsurrectionevaporated.Againstalltheodds,theIRB
militarycouncilmadethecriticaldecisiontogoaheadwiththerising.TheeventsofEaster week1916andthesubsequentWarofIndependence(1919-1921)wouldsignalthebeginning oftheendforBritishImperialdominance. TheFenianBrotherhoodhadbeenestablishedbyO’Mahonyasanorganizationthrough whichtheAmericanpoliticalsystemcouldbeinstrumentalforIrishendsandthishe consideredhislife’swork.O’Mahony’smostenduringcontributionandlegacytotheIrish nationalcausewasthateversincethetimewhenFenianismwasintheascendantinthe mid-1860s,itwastoproveadvisableforanyAmericangovernmenttogiveserious considerationtoIrishnationalistaspirations.ThethreeUnitedStatesadministrationsthat spannedtherise(1860-65),highpoint(1865-66)anddecline(1866-77)ofFenianismaccepted andtrustedO’MahonyasthekeyfigureofinfluenceintheFenianBrotherhoodandasthe spokesmanforIrishfreedominAmerica.Throughoutthatentireperiod,O’Mahony’s longtimefriendandcolleagueJohnSavageandhis(O’Mahony’s)laterloyalfriendBernard DoranKillianhaddirectaccesstotheOvalOffice. O’Mahony’sgreatestlifetimeachievementwasthatheorganizedthefirstmass movementofIrishmeninAmericaandforgedthemintoaneffectiveforceinthestrugglefor Irishindependence.Inhisestimation,whentheFenianBrotherhoodhadreacheditsgreatest strengthintheimmediateaftermathoftheAmericanCivilWar:‘Itsenrolledmembersmust haveamountedatthattimetosomeTWOHUNDREDTHOUSANDmen,whorepresented thepredominantwishesofFOURMILLIONSofIrish-borncitizensandofatleastSIX MILLIONSofAmericanofIrishbloodandIrishfeelings.’42）Thispowerfulelementmade theIrishquestionacrucialfactorinAnglo-Americanrelationsforthefirsttimeinhistory. EvenafterseeingtheFenianBrotherhoodsplitintotwofactions,andhavingresignedfrom office,O’MahonywasstillconfidentenoughtowritetohisnephewFrancisMandeville,on4 December1866,inthesepropheticterms: TheworkIhavedoneherewilltellinitsownduetime.ThegreatIrish element of this Republic is in motion Ireland-wards.Itwillnotbeturned backwardsuntiloursirelandisfree.Thiselementholdsthebalance of powerbetweenthetwogreatpartiesthatruletheUnitedStates;sothat neitherofthemcouldlongholdthereinsofpower,iftheIrishelement unanimouslyjoineditsopponents.…TheIrishelementknowsnow,thatitis apowerinthisgreatest country in the world.Itknowstoo,thatitcan bringthatpowertobearonEnglandinathousandways.Beingapower hereitis,fromitssituation,apoweramongthegreatonesoftheworld.
Theprovingofthisgreatandimportanttruthhasbeenmy peculiar work. HavingproveditisworthallIhaveendured,wereItoendmylifehere. The Irish element of America is able to free Ireland and must do it ere long.43）
O’Mahonyalwaysthoughtofthemovementratherthanhimself.Hedidnotconsiderhis ownpoliticalpositionimportantandinfactheprovedineptinretainingit.Inapostscriptto thatsameletter,O’Mahonyaskedhisnephewto:
Tellmy“friends”nottodespair,whatevermayhappen.Themovementisno longertied to the fate of an individualoreventothatofanorganization. HenceforthitisthemovementofthegreaterIrishnationinAmerica-itis irrepressible.Thatnationhasthepoweranditsmanifestdestiny44）isto liberateIreland.45） Thus,O’MahonyevenanticipatedthepossibilityoftheFenianBrotherhoodbeing succeededbyanotherrevolutionarymovement.TheeffectivesuccessortotheFenian Brotherhood-theClannaGael-wasestablishedinNewYorksixmonthsafterthisletter waswritten. ThemostsignificanteventinnineteenthcenturyIreland,ifnotinmodernIrishhistory, wasthegreatfamine.Intheaftermathofthegreatfamine,nativecapitalists,whomO’ Mahonydubbed‘land-jobbers’46）,purchasedtheestatesofbankruptedlandlordsatlow prices.47）Thelandquestionwasaninescapableissueforanymid-nineteenthcenturyIrish nationalistleaderandO’Mahonycouldnotfailtodelineatehisviewsonthesubject.Inthe prefacetohistranslationofCéitinn’sForas feasa,O’Mahonynotedthat: Throughouttheworkithasalsobeenadesiredobjectwithhim[the translator,i.e.O’Mahony],tofixthemindsofthedisinheritedsonsofthe ClannaGaedhail,whereverscattered,uponthatgreenlandwhichistheir ancestralbirth-right,sothattheymayneverforgetthatIrelandistheir properhome,andthatitistheythemselves,nottheland-jobberswhonow devouritspeopleanditsfruits,thathaveanyjustclaimtopossessitssoil. Theirrestorationtosuchbirthrighthasbeentheaimofhismostlonging andfondestambition,sincefirsthebeganseriouslytoconsidertheir presentfallencondition,andforthatendhewillstriveuntilheshallhave
ceasedtothink.48） Thesesentimentswouldhavestronglyresonatedwiththosefortunateenoughtohave escapedthehorroranddegradationofthegreatfamineandtohavesurvivedtheappalling conditionsonthe‘coffinships’toAmerica.Itcanbeinferredfromtheabovequotationthat O’Mahonyenvisagedthataftertheattainmentofnationalindependence,thelandofIreland wouldberestoredtothedispossessedfamineemigrantswhoreturnedtore-claimtheir ancestralbirthright.Thiswastheonewaytobringaboutsocialjustice,sincetheonly meansofsurvivalforthevastmajorityofIrish People,before,duringandafterthegreat famine,wasaccesstoland.Thatcalamityhadproventhatwithoutittheystarvedtothe death. AlthoughO’MahonyhaddefiniteviewsastotheredistributionofresourcesafterIrish independencewasachieved,thereisnoindicationofanypersonalorsocialaversiontothe landlordsinhiswritings.InthislatterrespecthewasofthesamemindastheIRBleader CharlesJosephKickhamandtheheritagetheyshared.O’Mahony’scriticismwaslevelled exclusivelyagainsttheimposedsystemandthoseparticipatinginitasnecessarilyagentsofa foreignpower. TwoyearsafterO’Mahony’sdeath,theLandLeaguewasfoundedinCountyMayo.As wouldbethecasewithsubsequentIrishnationalistmovements,itlookedtotheUnitedStates forsupport.WhenthePresidentoftheLandLeague,CharlesStewartParnell,wentona fundraisingtriptoAmericain1880,hefoundthenecessaryorganizationalstructuresand leadershipinplacethatallowedhimtocollectsubstantialfundsforthemovementathome.49） ItcouldbearguedthattheindispensablefoundationthatensuredthesuccessoftheLand LeaguehadbeenlaidbyO’Mahony.50）Hisnephew,JohnMandeville,wouldplayaprominent roleintheLandWarintheMitchelstowndistrictandsuffergrievouslyforit.51） TheActofUnionhadbeenengineeredbyBritishImperialismtomakecertainthatall decisionsrelatingtoIrelandweremadeinLondon.O’MahonyensuredthattheBritish administrationwouldhavetotakeIrishAmericaintoaccount.Thisremainedacritical componentinAnglo-Irishrelationsthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.Itisameasureofthe consistencyanddurabilityofO’Mahony’svisionthatinallfuturephasesofthestrugglefor nationalindependencetheinfluenceandsupportofthe‘IrishnationinAmerica’52）wouldbe ofcrucialimportancetothehomefront.PatrickPearse,JamesConnollyandtheother framersofthe1916ProclamationacknowledgedtheenormousdebtthattheIrishnation owedto‘herexiledchildreninAmerica.’53）Theircombinedeffortsculminatedinthe1916 rising,whichmarkedthebirthoftheindependentIrishstate.
InrevolutionarypoliticsO’Mahonywasthemanofactionpar excellencewhoalwaysled bypracticalexample.HislifetimeofdedicationtothecauseofIrishfreedomwasinextricably linkedwithhisunwaveringcommitmenttotherevivalofhisnativelanguageandits importanceinthenationalrebirth.In1859O’MahonyandothersfoundedtheNewYork OssianicSocietyasabranchoftheparentsocietyinIreland.TheNewYorkOssianic SocietywouldtaketheleadinorganizingIrishlanguageclassesintheUnitedStates.54） JohnDevoylaterrecalledthat‘allwhoknewhim[O’Mahony]werewellawarethathelooked forwardtotherestorationofGaelicasoneofthecertainresultsoftheachievementof NationalIndependence,andheexpressedthishopeinmanyofhisspeeches.’55）O’Mahony’s effortstopromoteanddeveloptheIrishlanguageclearlyshowhisbeliefthatwiththespread ofliteracyinIrishthepopulationwouldembraceitsGaelicheritage.Inhisperceptionthe arrestofAnglicizationwouldhavetobeundertakenbythegovernmentofanindependent Irishrepublic.O’MahonywouldbecomeaninspirationalforceintheIrishlanguageand culturalrevivalinthelatenineteenthcenturyinspiredbyDouglasHyde,thefirstPresident ofIndependentIreland.ConsideringthefactthatHyderesistedpoliticalalignmentofany kind,insofarasGaelicLeagueactivitieswereconcerned,itisnotablethathecomposeda LamentforJohnO’Mahony.ThisistheonlylamentthatHydewroteanditisalsohissole poeticalcompositioninEnglish.Inthefinalverse,O’Mahonyismadetoexpressthesenseof alifetimeoftoilgoingunrecognized: Throughalonglifecontriving,hoping,striving, Drivenanddriving,leadingandled; Ihaverescuednoughtbutmyhonoronly, Andthisaged,lonely,andwhiteninghead.56） 【Notes】 １）ThisisamodifiedversionofapaperdeliveredtotheJapanIrelandSociety,HoseiUniversity, Tokyo,on18October2014. ２）JohnO’Mahony,‘Fenianismasitwas’inIrish People(NewYork),14Dec.1867. ３）LettertotheeditorfromJohnO’MahonypublishedinIrish News(NewYork),19June1858. ４）Irish People(Dublin),21Jan.1865. ５）MaryO’Ryan’spaternalfamilyhomewasatBanshaCastleinSouthTipperary. ６）ThereisanentryforDanielO’Mahony’slandholdingof121acresatClonkillainthe TitheApplotmentBookfortheparishofKilgullane,baronyofCondonsandClangibbon,County Cork,1825(NAI,bookno.6/12), ７）TheMitchelstownparishregistersdonotlistthebaptismsofThomasDaniel,JohnandJane
MariaO’Mahony,buttherearegapsinthisregister.Wedohavearecordofthetimeanddate oftheirbirthsinadocumentwrittenbytheirfather,Daniel.ThisisreproducedinMainchín Seoighe,‘TheO’MahonysoftheGaltees’inIris Mhuintir Mhathúna(1978),p.23.
８）Irish People(Dublin),21Jan.1865.
９）Entryfor‘JohnO’Mahony’writtenbyJohnO’LearyinSidneyLee(ed.),Dictionary of national biographyxlii(London,1895),p.167;Entryfor‘JohnO’Mahony’inDumasMalone(ed.), Dictionary of American biographyxiv(NewYork,1934),p.35.
10）GeorgeDamesBurtchaellandThomasUlickSadleir(eds.),Alumni Dublinenses(Dublin,1935), p.638;TrinityCollegerecords(TCDMUN/V/23/5).
11）L.M.Cullen,‘Patrons,teachersandliteracyinIrish:1700-1850’inMaryDalyandDavid Dickson(eds.),The origins of popular literacy in Ireland(Dublin,1990),pp15-44.
12）ThelifestyleoftheGaelicscholarPádraigÓNéill,describedinEoghanÓNéill’sGolden vale of Ivowen(Dublin,2002,pp321-465)typifiesthatofJohnO’Mahonyduringthe1830sand1840s. 13）PeterGray,The Irish famine(London,1995),pp46-7;GearóidÓTuathaigh,Ireland before the
famine 1798-1848(Dublin,1990),pp203-4. 14）LetterfromJohnO’MahonytoFrPatrickLavelle,dated22July1862,printedinIrishman (Dublin),16Aug.1862. 15）ThomasClarkeLuby,‘Personalreminiscences’inIrish World(NewYork),10Mar.1877;JohnO’ MahonytoWilliamM.Curry,23Nov.1876,box9,file2(WilliamJ.MaloneycollectionofIrish historicalpapers,ManuscriptsandArchivesDivision,NYPL). 16）ThomasN.Brown,‘TheoriginsandcharacterofIrish-Americannationalism’inIrish nationalism and the American contribution(NewYork,1976),pp341-3.
17）Irish American(NewYork),25July1857;KennethE.Nilsen,‘TheIrishlanguageinNewYork, 1850-1900’inBayor,RonaldH.andTimothyJ.Meagher(eds),The New York Irish(Baltimore, MarylandandLondon,1997),p.262(hereaftercitedasNilsen,‘TheIrishlanguageinNewYork’ inBayorandMeagher(eds),The New York Irish).
18）ThefontusedintheGaeliccolumnsoftheIrish AmericanwasmadebyJamesConnerand Sons’foundry,NewYorkCity.
19）ThePhoenixBrigadelaterevolvedintothe99thRegimentoftheNewYorkNationalGuard.
20）Jenkins,Fenians and Anglo-American relations during reconstruction,pp36-8. 21）O’Mahony,‘Fenianism’inIrish People(NewYork),28Mar.1868.
22）Irish American(NewYork),6Feb.1864;JohnO’Leary,Recollections of Fenians and Fenianism (2vols,London,1896),i,p.195;JohnDevoy,Recollections of an Irish rebel(NewYork,1929),p. 268(hereaftercitedasDevoy,Recollections).
23）UnitedStatesMilitaryRecords(NationalArchivesbuildingI,Washington,DC).
24）W.S.Neidhardt,Fenianism in North America(PennsylvaniaStateUniversityandLondon, 1975),pp10-11;Jenkins,Fenians and Anglo-American relations during reconstruction,p.26; ThomasN.Brown,Irish-American nationalism, 1870-1890(PhiladelphiaandNewYork,1966), p.40.
25）Irish World(Dublin),17&31Mar.1877.
26）CharlesGavanDuffy,Young Ireland: a fragment of Irish history, 1840-1850(London,1880),p. 291.
27）JohnDevoy,Recollections of an Irish rebel(NewYork,1929),p.268(hereaftercitedasDevoy, Recollections).
28）JohnNewsinger,‘OldChartists,FeniansandnewSocialists’inÉire-Ireland,xvii,no.2(Summer 1982),pp.19-46.
29）JohnO’Mahony,‘LaborandCapital’inIrish People(NewYork),17Dec.1870.
30）D.GeorgeBoyce,Nineteenth-century Ireland: the search for stability(Dublin,1990),pp256; JamesConnolly,Labor in Ireland: Labor in Irish history, the re-conquest of Ireland(Dublinand London,1922)(hereaftercitedasConnolly,Labor in Irish history).
31）JohnO’Mahony,‘Laborandcapital’inIrish People(NewYork),17Dec.1870.
32）JohnO’MahonytoJeremiahQuinn,6Oct.1864(NYPLManuscriptsandArchivesDivision, WilliamJ.MaloneycollectionofIrishhistoricalpapers,box9,file9,item2).
33）Foras Feasa ar Éirinn…. the History of Ireland, from the earliest period to the English invasion, by the Reverend Geoffrey Keating, D. D. Translated from the original Gaelic and annotated by John O’Mahony(NewYork,1857),pp11-12(hereaftercitedasO’Mahony(transl.), Foras feasa ar Éirinn).
34）Connolly,Labor in Irish history,p.xxxvii. 35）O’Mahony(transl.),Foras feasa ar Éirinn), p.12.
36）JohnO’Mahony,‘TheFenian’sfirstfealty’inIrish People(NewYork),8July1871.
37）JohnO’MahonytoJaneMariaMandeville,16Nov.1863,inJamesMaher(ed.), Chief of the Comeraghs: a John O’Mahony anthology(Mullinahone,Tipperary,1957),p.79.
38）JohnO’Mahony,‘Socialreform’intheIrish People(NewYork),10Dec.1870. 39）JohnO’Mahony,‘ArmsraidsinIreland’inIrish People(NewYork),24June1871. 40）JohnO’Mahony,‘Fenianism-anexposition’inIrish People(NewYork),4July1868.
41）LeonÓBroin,Revolutionaryunderground:the story of the Irish Republican Brotherhood 1858-1924(Dublin,1976),pp158-9.
42）JohnO’Mahony,‘Fenianism-anexposition’inIrish People(NewYork),18July1868.
43）ohnO’MahonytoFrancisMandeville,4Dec.1866(MS5018,NLI).Reproducedcourtesyofthe BoardoftheNationalLibraryofIreland.
44）FrederickMerk,Manifest destiny and mission in American history(NewYork,1963),p.27. Thephrase‘manifestdestiny’,firstusedbythejournalistJohnL.O’Sullivanin1845onbehalfof Americanexpansionists,hadaspecialresonanceintheUnitedStates.JohnO’Mahony’suseof thetermintheabovequotationillustratesthelinkageinhismindbetweenthegrowthofIrish-AmericanpowerandtheprospectofIrishindependence.
45）PostscriptofletterfromJohnO’MahonytoFrancisMandeville,4Dec.1866(NLI,MS5018). 46）O’Mahony(transl.),Foras feasa ar Éirinn,p.7.
47）GearóidÓTuathaigh,Ireland before the famine, 1798-1848(Dublin,1990),pp222-3;CormacÓ Gráda,Black ’47 and beyond: the great Irish famine in history, economy and memory (Princeton, NewJersey,1999),pp114-5.
48）O’Mahony(transl.),Foras feasa ar Éirinn,p.7.
49）Jenkins,Fenians and Anglo-American relations during reconstruction,pp319-20.
50）ItmaybeworthnotingthatStephenJosephMeany,GeorgeCahillandPatrickAndrewCollins, allsteadfastsupportersofJohnO’Mahony,becameleadingfiguresintheLandLeagueof America,establishedtosupporttheparentorganizationinIreland.SeeJoePower,‘Stephen JosephMeany’inDal gCais: the Journal of Clare(1991),p.45;WilliamD’Arcy,The Fenian movement in the United States, 1858-1886(WashingtonDC,1947),p.400.
51）JohnMandevillewasthefourthsonofJaneMariaO’MahonyandJamesMandeville.Bythemid 1880sJohnMandevillelivedthelifeofagentlemanfarmerattheoldO’Mahonyhomesteadin Clonkilla,nearMitchelstown,CountyCork.AtLandleaguemeetingsheldinMitchelstownin August1887,Mandevilleurgedthelocaltenantstoresistevictions.Thisresultedinhisarrest andtrialbeforethemagistrate’scourtinMitchelstownunderthenewCrimesAct,onthecharge
ofinflammatoryspeechmaking.ThecrownprosecutorwasEdwardCarson,whowaslaterto makehismostnotablepitchinthemilitarizationoftheanti-HomeRulefaction.On22 SeptemberMandevillewassentencedtotwomonthsimprisonment.Whenreleasedfromjailon ChristmasEve,hewasinverypoorhealth.MandevillediedathishomeinClonkillaon8July 1888,attheearlyageof38years.Ninedayslater,on17July,aformalinquestonhisdeath beganintheMarketHouse,Mitchelstown.Theverdictofthejuryonthecauseofhisdeathwas unanimous:Mandevillehaddiedasadirectconsequenceofhis‘brutalandunjustifiable treatment’injail.On9September1906amonumentwasunveiledtoMandevilleintheNew MarketSquare,Mitchelstown,byhisfriendWilliamO’Brien,MPforCork.SeeColmanO’ Mahony,‘JohnMandevilleandthePlanofCampaignatMitchelstowninthe1880s’inIris Mhuintir Mhathúna13(Summer1989),pp5-17. 52）JohnO’Mahony,‘Agitate!Agitate!Agitate!’inIrish People(NewYork),1July1871.
53）Poblacht na h-Eireann: the Provisional Government of the Irish Republic to the people of Ireland (Dublin,1916)reproducedinJohnO’Connor,The1916Proclamation(Dublin,1986),p.10.
54）See Phoenix(NewYork),26Jan.1861;SeealsoNilsen,‘TheIrishlanguageinNewYork’in BayorandMeagher(eds),The New York Irish,p.264
55）Devoy,Recollections,pp262-3.
56）DouglasHyde,‘DeathlamentofJohnO’Mahony:BroncaoineadhSheaghainUiMathghamhain’in Poems and ballads of Young Ireland(Dublin,1888),pp28-9.
