INTERLANGUAGE ANALYSES AND THE PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

I NTERLANGUAGE ANALYSES

AND THE PEDAGOGI CAL I MPLI CATI ONS

Os amu Takai The c ont e nt of t hi s ar t i cl e has be e n pr e s e nt e d at t he f i r s t t e ac he r s 'c onf e r e nc elatot ar u uni ve r s i t yofComme r c eon Novembe r 1 3 , 1 988.Thi spaperc ons i de r st het he or e t i calf r ame wor k off or e l gn and/Ors e c ondl angua gel e ar ni ngandt e ac hi ngt hr oughr e vi e w oft he ar t i c l e s ,whi c h pr e s e nt st hef i r s tpar toft her e s e ar ch i nve s t i gat i ng a s ys t e mat i c me t hod ofe r r orc or r e c t i ons i n a f or e i gn and/ors e c ond l angua gec l as s r oom.Ther e s ul t soft hes t udy e xami ni ng t her e l at i on‑

s hi p be t we e n t he l e ar ne r s 'pr of i c i ency and t r ans f e r e r r わr s s hal lbe r e por t e di nt hes e c ondpar toft her e s e ar chi nt hef ut ur e.

1. 1 NTRODUCTl 0N

Dur i ng t hepr oc es sdfac qui r i ng a f or e i gn and/ors e c ond l an‑

gua ge , maki ng e r r or s i s i ne vi t abl e.Ne ve r t he l e s s ,l e ar ne r s l e ar n t he t ar ge tl anguaget hr ough maki nge r r or s ,j us tl i keanyot he rdi s c i pl i ne .

Ⅰ nal anguagec l a s s r oom,we ,t e ac he r s ,al waysf ac et hene c e s s i t y ofe r r orc or r e c t i on亨 ･But ,i ti snotea s yt ot e l lwhi c he r r or ss houl dbe c or r e c t e dandwT hi c hs houl dnotbecor r e c t e d.Amongt hef or e i gnand/

ors e c ondl anguager e s e ar c he r sandt e ache r snow,i ti ss ai dt hatunl e s s t he r ei sno i nt e r f e r enc e wi t h t hec ommuni c at i on i n us eoft he l an‑

1 .Thi si st heEngl i s ht r a ns l a t i ondo ne by t hea ut ho r .Thee qui va l e ntJ a pa : ne s ena mei sa sf ol l ows : 第 1

〔9 1〕

guage ,wedon' thavet ocor r e c te r r or s .

Howe ve r ,t he r ear es e ve r alpr obl e mswewi l lf ac ei nt hi sadhoc e r r orc or r ec t i on. Fi r s t l y,s ubj e c t i veer r orc or r e ct i on r e s t st ot al l y on i nt ui t i vee val uat i onoft hes t ude nt s 'pr oduct i onbyanat i ves pe ake rof t he t ar ge tl angua ge . Se c ondl y,t he r e ar e no c l e ar gui de l i ne s or obj e c t i vec r i t er i at hata ny t e acher ,whe t he rheors hei sanat i veor non‑ nat i ves pe ake r ,C ande pe ndonf ort hee r r orc or r e c t i onac c or di ngt o s t ude nt s 'l eve landr e adi ne s soft het ar getl anguage :s t ude nt swhohave hi ghe rt ar ge tl anguagepr of i c i e nc ys omet i me smaket hes amee r r or sas t hos ei n t hel owe rpr of i c i e nc i e sdo.The r e f or e ,Wene e d as ys t e mat i c me t hod ofe r r orc or r e c t i onsbas e don t hes t ude nt s 'pr of i c i e nc yoft he t ar ge tl anguageandt he i rne e ds .

Her e ,Iwoul d l i ket oi nve s t i gat eas ys t e mat i cme t hod ofer r or c or r e c t i onswi t hi nt het he or e t i c alf r ame wor kofs e c ondl anguagel e ar n‑

i ngandac qui s i t i on,bas e dont hec ombi nat i onofmul t i pl eanal ys t sOf i nt e r l anguage :c ont r as t i vea nal ys ュ s ,e r r oranal ys ュ s ,andT‑ uni tanal ys i s ,

us i ngt hedat aobt ai ne di nourEngl i s hc l a s s e satc ol l e gel e ve l .

TheT‑ uni tanal ys i shasbe e nwi del yus edt ome as ur et hegl obal gr ammat i c alpr of i c i e nc yors ynt ac t i cc ompl exi t yofs pe ec handwr i t i ng s ampl e sbyt hef i r s tands e c ondl anguagel e ar ni ngr e s e ar c he r s .Hat c h ( 1983)i nt r oduc e ss omeappl i c at i onsofT‑ uni tanal ys i st ovar i ousabi L i t y t e s t s ." TheT‑ uni ti sas i ngl ei ndepe nde ntc l aus et oge t he rwi t hal l i t smodi f yi ngs ubor di nat ec l aus e s " 'asHat c hde f i ne d.Fore xampl e , " t he man wal ke d away"i saf our ‑ wor d T‑ uni t .Thenumbe r sofe r r or ‑ f r e e T‑ uni t sc anpr e di c tt hel e ar ne r ' sl angua gepr of i c i e ncy.

Thef ol l owi ng hypot he s i sc an bet e s t ed i n t hi sr e s e ar c h:i ft he l e ar ne ri sa be g inne rwho h由 apoorpr of i c i e ncy i n t het ar ge tl an‑

guage ,t he r emus tbemor ef i r s tl anguaget r ans f e rt ypeofe r r or ss i nc e

I NTERLANGUAGE ANALYSESAND THE PEDAGOGI CAL I MPLI CATI ONS 93

heors hedoe snothavet heappr opr i at es e c ond､ l anguager ul e s ,heor s hewi l lus et hef i r s tl angua ger ul et opr oduc et hes e c ondl anguage .On t he ot he r hand,i ft he l e ar ne r i s pr of i c i e nte nough i n t he s e c ond l anguage ,he ors he wi l lhave mor edeve l opme nt ale r r or s .We may avoi d e r r or ‑ C or r e c t i onsi n t hi sc as eunl e s st hee r r or sl e adust oc om‑

pl e t e mi s unde r s t andi ng.Howe ve r ,i n t he f or me r c as e,t he t e ac he r s houl d t e ac h t heappr opr i at er ul e soft hes e c ond l anguagewi t h t he e xpl i c i tc ompar i s ont ot hef i r s tl anguager ul e s .

2. DEFI NI T1 0NS

Be f or ewepr oc e e d,l e tmemakes omeoft het e r msmor ee xpl i c i t .

Ⅰus et het e r m ̀ ̀ 1 anguageac qui s i t i on"i nt e r c hange abl ywi t h " l angua ge l e ar nl ng" ,Whi c h i sapr oc e s sofi nt e r nal i z at i on ofal anguages ys t em t hr ought hel anguageac qui s i t i onde vi c eChoms ky ( 1 965)de f i ne s＼ i nan

̀ ̀ ac qui s i t i onmodel ' 'f orl anguage .

Kr as he n( i nKr as he n ,1983; Kr ds he nandTe r r e l l ,1983) ,howe ve r ,

cl e ar l y de f i ne s t he di s t i nc t i on be t we e n t he t wo. I n t he l e ar nl ng‑

ac qui s i t i ondi s t i nct i on,t heKr as he n' sde f i ni t i oni ss t at e di noneofhi s f i veI hypot he s e s ,t heAc qui s i t i on‑ Le ar ni ngHypot he s i s :" l anguageac qui ‑ s i t i on i st hè nat ur alway't ode vel op l i ngui s t i cabi l i t y,andi sas ub‑

cons c i ouspr oce s s "( i n Kr a s hen and Te r r e l l ,1983) . Fore xampl e ,chi l ‑ dr e nar enotne c e s s ar i l yawar eofEngl i s hgr ammarwhent he ypl aya l angua gegameus i ng Engl i s h wi t h t he i rpe e r s .The y ar eonl y awar e t hat t hey ar e s uc c e s s f ul l y c ommuni c at i ng wi t h e ac h ot he r .I n t he pr oc e s sofac qui s i t i on,t hel anguages t r uc t ur e sar ei mpl i c i t l yac qui r e d t hr oughc ommuni c at i on.

On t heot he rhand

" l angua gel ear ni ng i s̀ knowi ng about 'l an‑

gua ge ,or̀ f or malknowl e dge'ofal angua ge "( i n Kr as he nandTe r r e l l ,

1 983) .Thi si s､ an anal yt i c all i ngui s t i cknowl e dgeoft hel anguage .I n t he. s t r uc t ur all e velofal anguage ,f ore xampl e ,youc ans t udyandt al k aboutt her ul e soft hel anguage.Le ar ni ng,t he r e f or e ,r e f e r st ò ̀ e xpl i q i t ' ' knowl e dgeofr ul e s .

The t e r m , " I nt e r l anguage " ,C oi ne d and us e d f i r s tby Sel i nke r ( 1 972) i s f ul l y di s c us s ed and de f i ne d as a c er t ai n s t age of de ve l opme nt algr ammaroft hes e c ond orf or e i gn l anguagel e ar ne r . I f we a s s ume nat i ve s pe ake r s 'gr ammat i c alc ompe t e nce i s obs e r vabl e ,

t he n we c an al s o as s ume t hatやr r one ous de ve l opme nt algr ammar pr oduc e dbyt hel anguagel e ar ne r s ,whi c hi sc al l e dani nt e r l anguage ,i s an obs e r vabl el i ngui s t i cs ys t e m. I ti sname d as " i nt er l anguage "be ‑ c aus ei ti si n t hemi ddl es t ageofs ec ond l anguage ,Engl i s h,andf i r s t l anguage ,J apane s e ,f ore xampl e.

Se l i nke r ,i n t he s ame ar t i c l e ( 1 972) , advoc at e s a me t hod of anal ys t s Ofi nt e r l angua ge i n or de r t o de s c r i be t he pr oc e s s oft hi s de ve l opme nt all i ngui s t i cs ys t e f n･Byc ompar i ngt hr e edat a: 1 )wr i t i ngs orut t e r anc e si nt hel ear ner ' sf i r s tl anguagepr oduc e dbyt hel e ar ne r ,2) i nt e r l anguagewr i t i ngsorut t e r anc e spr oduc e d by. t hel e ar ne r ,and 3) S e c ondl anguagewr i t i ngsorut t e r anc e spr oduc e dbynat i ves pe ake r sof t hes e c ondl anguage ,r e s e ar c he r swi l lbeas s ume dt obeabl et os t udy t he de ve l opme nt als t age s ofl anguage ac qui s i t i on and t he l e ar ni ng pr oc e s soft hel e ar ne r .

Iwi l lc ons i de rt woma j f ) rt ype s ノ Ofe r r oranal ys i swhi c hdi f f e ri n wayst opr e di c tand t oc at e gor i z et hee r r ort ype st hel e ar ne r smake : f i r s t ,t hec ont r as t i veanal ys i s ,andt hes e c ond,t hede vel opme nt aler r or anal ys ュ s .

Br i e f l y,t hec ont r as t i veanal ys i si sbas e dont heas s umpt i ont hat

t hel e ar nerus e shi snat i vel anguages t r uct ur ei nor dert oc ons t r uc tt he

I NTERLANGUAGE ANALYSESAND THE PEDAGOGI CAL I MPLI CATI ONS 95

9 e c ond orf or ei gn l anguage . Thee r r ori st he r e f or ?c at e gor i z e d as'a ne gat i vet r ans f e rt ype .Forexampl e ,e ve nt hought hi si snotons ynt ax l e ve lbuton di s c our s el e ve li n J apane s e ,i n ans wer i ng t oane gat i ve que s t i on,a sa f f i r mat i vemar ker , " hai( ye s ) ' 'i sal waysus e d.The r e f or e ,

J apane s es t ude nt sl e ar ni ngEngl i s ht e ndt ous è ̀ ye s "i ns t e adof" no"

t oans we rne gat i ve l yt ot hos eque s t i onss uc has :

" Ar e n' tyougol ngWi t hus? "

" Yes , Ⅰ ' m no t . "

The de ve l opment ale r r oranal ys ュ si sbas e d on t he as s umpt i on t ha tt hepr oc e s sofs e c ondorf or e l gnl anguageac qui s i t i oni s‑ t hes ame ast heoneoff i r s tl anguagea c qui s i t i on.Thel e ar ne ract i ve l yor gani z e s t hes e c ond l anguageher e c e i ve s ,andmake sge ne r al i z at i onsabouti t s s t r uc t ur e s a s chi l dr en do i n ac qui r i ng t he i r f i r s t l anguage .For exampl e ,t he/t hi r d pe r s on s i ngul arトS )i sof t en omi t t e d by J apane s e s t ude nt sl e ar ni ngEngl i s h.Thi si se xpl ai ne dasade vel opment ale r r or s i nc eEngl i s h‑ s pe aki ng c hi l dr en ge ne r al l y omi tf unc t or s ,i n t hi sc as e t he‑ si nf l e c t i onf ort het hi r dpe r s ons i ngul arpr e s e nti ndi c at i ve .

3. Hl STORY

He r e ,Ihavet odi s c us st hebr i e fhi s t or y oft he s et woanal ys e s wi t ht het he or e t i c alpe r s pe c t i vef r om r e vi e w ofl i t er at ur e .

The bas i c as s umpt i ons oft he c ont r a s t i ve anal ys ュ s aboutt he pr oc e s sofl anguagel e ar ni nga r et hef ol l owi ng:●

1 .Languagel e ar ni ngl S " habi tf or mat i on" . 2

2 . Anol dhabi t( us i ngyourf i r s tl anguage )hi nde r sorge t si nt he wayofl e ar ni ngane w l anguage;orot he r wi s e,f ac i l i t at e st hef or mat i on ofanew l anguage .

Be f or et he1960 S, " t hebe havi or i s tappr oac h" 3 0fps yc hol ogywa s

t hemos tdo mi nantt heor y l n Second l an gua ge l earni ng and acqui si t i on, ander r or sw erer ecogni zed asr esul t sof i m per f ectl earni ng:t hati s,t he pr oc e s sofh abi t ‑ f or mat i on has notyet be en compl et ed.The l ear ner ' s e r r or s ar e v i ewed as an i nt er f er ence by hi s f i r st l anguage, ‑where f i r s t ‑ l anguag e habi t s pr eventt he l earne rf r om / l earni ng t he second or f or el gn l ang uage.

Whe n f i r stl anguage habi t sar e h el pf u lt o acqui r e t he second or f or ei gn l ang uage,i ti s consi der ed as a pos i t i ve orf aci l i t at i ve t r a ns f er . Forexampl e,s ome oft hel oan wor ′ dsf r om Engl i s h i nt o t heJapanese l anguagesyst em,even t hough unf or t unat el y many oft hem woul d be uni nt el l i gi bl et onat i ves peaker sofEngl i sh,hel p t hel ear nerf i l ll exi cal gaps4wi t h t he l oan wor ds such as pen〃 or " i ( comput er . 〟 Thus ,t he er r or s ar e anal yzed by compar i ng t he f i r sL1 anguage and t he s econd‑

1 anguagesyst em,whi ch i scal l ed " cont r ast i veanal ysi s" .

Lado ( 1957)pr ovi des t he ear l i estpr ocedur als t at ementand as‑

sumpt i ons of t he cont r ast i ve anal ysi s hypot hesi s. He st at es t hat

2. Be havi orc oul d bee xpl ai ne d t obehavi or i s tps ychol ogy by obs e r vi ng t he r e s pons eswhi cht ookpl ac ewhenpar t i c ul ars t i mul iwe r egl Ven.A habi ti s t her e gul aras s oc i at i onofapar t i cul arr e s pons ewi t hapar t i c ul ars t i mul us . Le ar nl ng,t he n,Coul doc curbyf or mi ngas e r i e sofapar t i c ul arha ̲ bi t .Thi s t he or yofhabi tf or mat i oni sbas e dont heor i esofl e ar ni ngi ngene r al( s e e El l i s1 985) .

3. Thepr omi ne ntbe havi or i s ti s 王 】 .F. Ski nne r ,whoel abor at e dat he or yof l e ar ni ngappl i c abl et ol anguagel e ar ni ngi nhi sbook,Ver balBe havi or( s e e Ri c har dsandRodge r s1 986) .Be havi or i s tappr oachi sempi r i c al l ybas e don t hes t udyofhumanbe havi or .Theoc c ur r e nc eoft hebe havi or si sde pe nd‑

en r ton t hr e ef ac t or si n l e ar ni ng:as t i mul us ,whi c hi nduce sbe havi orofa l e ar ne r ;a r e s pons e t r i gge r e d by a s t i mul us ;and r e i nf or c e ment ,whi c h e nc our age st her e pe t i t i onors uppr e s s i onoft her e s pons ei nt hef ut ur e( s e e Br own 1 980;Ri c har dsandRodge r s1 986) .

4. A l e xi c algapi she r eme antast heabs e nc eofal exe medenot i nganobj e c t

whi c hhappe nsnott oe xi s ti nJ apane s ec ul t ur e( s e eLyons1 977) .

I NTERLANGUAGE ANALYSESAND THE PEDAGOGI CAL I MPLI CATI ONS 97

peopl et e ndt ot r ans f e rt hef or msandme ani ngsaswe l last heconc ept s oft hec ul t ur et ot hef or e l gnl angua geandc ul t ur e ,pr oduc t i vel ywhen s pe aki ng orwr i t i ng,and r e c e pt i ve l y whe n t r yi ng t ounde r s t and t he l anguage. Hec ont i nue st hatt heke yt oe as et hedi f f i c ul t yi nf or e i gn l angua gel e ar ni ngl i e si nt hec ompar i s onoft wol angua g?s ys t ems ･

Ki mi z uka ( 1 977)i s a pi one er i n t he c ont r as t i ve anal ys i s by c ompar i ng J apane s eand Engl i s h i n t he ar e a soft he s ound s ys t e m ,

gr ammat i c als t r uc t ur e ,andc ul t ur albac kgr oundoft het wol angua ge s . He rvi e w ofe r r or s i s ba s e d on t he as s umpt i ons t hatLado ( 1 957) make sand i sa sf ol l ows :t hedi f f i cul t y t hatJ apane s es t ude nt sf ac ei s be c aus e ofi t s r emot e ne s s f r om Engl i s h i n s ound and gr ammat i c al s t r uc t ur e ,aswe l la si ncul t ur albac kgr ound.Fore xampl e,s heanal yz e s t hepr epos i t i onale r r or swi t h t henot i on oft hes pl i tc at e gor yofEng‑

l i s hl anguageands t at e st hat" t heJ apane s es t ude nt smus tl e ar nt os pl i t t hec onc e ptqfe achpar t i c l e( i nJ apane s e )i nt odi f f e r e ntpr e pos i t i ons( i n Engl i s h) . ' 'Oneofhe re xampl e si sasf ol l ows :Eve r yye aratJ anuar ys he s e ntusamoc hi .( Mai t os hii c hi gat uniomoc hiwookut t ekur e r u. )Thi s s e nt e nc es houl d be. " Shes e ndst l S ̀ moc hi 'i n J anuar y e ve r y ye ar . "I n t hi s e xampl e , Ki mi z uka ar gue s t hatt he s t ude ntf ai l e d t o s pl i tt he c onc e ptofJ apane s epar t i c l e" ni "andl i t e r al l y t r ans l at e d i nt oEngl i s h

" at "i ns t e adof" i n" .

I n mor er e c e ntye ar st he r ehavebe en i nc r e as i ng doubt sabout t he appl i c abi l i t y ofc ont r as t i ve e r r or ‑ anal ys i s t o l anguage t e ac hi ng.

Cor °e r ( 1975) e xpl ai nst hef ol l owi ng r e as onsf ort hedoubt s :Fi r s t l y ,

notal le r r dr sanddi f f i c ul t i e sc anbet r ac e dbac kt ot hei nf l ue nc eoft he

f i r s tl anguage;s e condl y,whatc ont r as t i veanal ys ュ spr e di c t e dasadi f f i ‑

cul t y doe snotal wayst ur n outt obes oi n pr ac t i c e ;andt hi r dl y,t he

pur e l y t he or e t i c alpr obl ems t hatunde r t he i nt e r f e r e nc e.t he or y t he

l ear ne rmus tunl e ar n ( orf or ge t )t hef i r s tl anguager ul e si n or de rt o l e ar nt hes e c ondorf or e i gnl angua gec as tt hedoubtoft heval i di t yi n t hi sanal ys t s .

Unde rt heas s umpt i onoft hec ur r e ntt he or yofl anguageac qui s i ‑ t i on and l e ar ni ng,t hel e ar ne ri svi e we d asa ge ne r at orge ne r al i z i ng l anguage .Thi si st he s ame hypot he s i sasunder l yi ng f i r s tl anguage ac qui s i t i on,Chi l dr e n c ons t r uc tt he i rown r ul e sofgr ammarc r e at i ve l y i n t he de ve l opme ntofl anguage ac qui s i t i on.The not i on appl i e s t o as s umet hatt hes e c ondl anguagel e ar ne ral s oa ct i ve l yc ons t r uct sr ul e s f r om t hedat ahee nc ount e r sandgr adual l yappr oache st ot hes e c ond‑

1 anguages ys t e m.

Se c ondl anguageac qui s i t i onandl e ar nl ngar e ,t he n,bas edol lt he as s umpt i ont hatt hel e ar ne rpos s e s s e sac e r t ai nki ndofc ompe t e nc eor

" i nt e r l angua ge "gr ammarasSe l i nke r ( 1 972)advoc at e sr at he rt hanas e t of di s pos i t i ons t o r e s pond t o s t i mul i . The r e f or e , maki ng e r r or s i s l ooke datast hee vi denceoft hel e ar ni ngpr oc e s s . Thee r r oranal ys i s ort hei nve s t i gat i onoft hee r r or spr ovi de sust hemos ts i gni f i cantdat a ont hel e ar ne r ' si nt e r l anguagede ve l opme nt sandhi sl e ar ni ngpr oc e s s .

Kr as he n( . i nKr as hen,1 983;Kr as he n, andTe r r e

l ,1 983)ar t i c ul at e s t he or e t i c alas s umpt i onsbys t at i nghi sf i vehypot he s e s :

Thef i r s thypot he s i s. i s" TheAc qui s i t i on‑ Le ar ni ngHypot he s i s "i n whi c h Kr as hen di s t i ngui s he st wo waysofdeve l opl ng C Ompe t e nC ei n t headul t ss e c ond l anguage .Onei st heac qui s i t i on,t he" nat ur al "way t o de vel op l i ngui s t i c abi l i t y t hr ough c ommuni c at i ng me s s age s .The ot he rone , ‑ l e ar ni ng,i san " e xpl i c i t "knowl e dgeofr ul e sofl anguage s t r uct ur e s .

The s e c ond hypot he s i s i s t he " Nat ur alOr de r Hypot he s i s "i n

whi c hgr ammat i cals t r uc t ur e sar eac qui r e di napr e di c t abl eor de rt hat

I NTERLANGUAGE ANALYSESAND TI i E PEDAGOGI CAL I MPuCATI ONS 99

Chi l dr enandadul t sl e ar ne r swi l lac qui r egr ammat i c als t r uc t ur ei nt he s ameor de r .Thi sas s umpt i oni sbas e dont heempi r i c als t udi e sofni ne gr ammat i calmor phe me sf orEngl i s h asas e c ond l anguage .Ac ヽ cor di ng t o t he s t udi e s ,t he pr ogr e s s i ve ( ‑ i ng)i s a c qui r e d f i r s t ,ne xtf ol l ows pl ur al ,c opul a( t obe ) ,auxi l i ar y( pr ogr e s s i ve :be) ,ar t i c l e( a,t he ) ,i r r e gu‑

l arpas t ,r e gul arpas t ,t hi r d pe r s on s i ngul ar( 一 S ) ;andpos s e s s i vec ome s l a s t .

Thet hi r d hypot he s i si st he" Moni t orHypot he s i s "i n whi c h t he c ons c i ousknowl e dgeoft her ul e sac qui r e dbyt hef or mall e ar ni ngwi l l wor kt or e pai rOrmakes e l f ‑ c or r e c t i ononl e ar ner ' sut t e r edorwr i t t e n pr oduc t i on.The moni t orac t i vat e sbe f or eora f t e rt heut t er anc ehas be e n pr oduc e d.Ac c or di ng t o Kr as he n,t heopt i malmoni t orus e ri sa goodl anguggel e aner ･

Thef our t h hypot he s i si st he ̀ ̀ I nputHypot he s i s "i n whi c h t he r e c e pt i vec ompr ehe ns i oni spr l mar i l yl mpOr t anti nt hel anguageac qui ‑ s i t i on;pr oduc t i veabi l i t yi nas e c ondl anguagewi l le me r gedni t sown wi t ht i me.Kr as he ne xpl ai nst hatt hel e ar ne rwi l lmovef r om s t age" i "

( whe r e" i "i shi sc ur r e ntl e veloft his e c ondl anguagec ompe t e nc e )t oa s t age… i + 1 "( t hes t agei mme di at e l y f ol l owi ng " i "i n t hehypot he t i c al nat ur al 'ac qui s i t i on or de r )wi t h e nough c ompr ehe ns i bl e i nputt o t he l e ar nerwhi c h c an‑be pr ovi de d t hr ough c ont e xtand e xt r a‑ l i ngui s t i c i nf or mat i on s uc h asge s t ur e sand/orot herme ansofnon‑ ver balc om‑

muni c at i on.

The f i f t h hypot he s i s i s t he I " Af f e c t i ve Fi l t er Hypot he s i s ' 'i n

whi c h human ps yc hol ogi c alf ac t or s s uc h as anxi e t i e s ,t he l ac k of

s el f ‑ c onf i de nc e , or t he l ac k of mot i vat i on be c ome a me nt albl oc k

agai ns tt hel anguagei nput ,whi c hi sc al l e dt heaf f e c t i vef i l t e r .Whe ni t

i sup,t he l e ar ne rmay unde r s t and whathehe ar sorr e ads ,butt he

i nputwi l lnotr e ac h t hel anguageac qui s i t i on devi c e･whe r et hel an一 guagei nputi sa s s ume dt obeac qui r e dandgene r at e d. The r e f or e ,t he l owe rt heaf f e c t i vef i l t e ri s ,t hebe t t e rc hanc ei ti st hatt hel e ar ne rwi l l ac qui r et het ar ge tl anguage .

Thet he or y advoc at e d by Kr a s he n pr e di c t st hatt hel e ar ne rof t hes e c ond l angua gewi l la c qui r eand de ve l op hi sown i nt er l anguage s ダS t em by hi ms e l fi ft her e i s e nough c ' ompr e he ns i bl e i nputt o､t he l e ar ne randt heaf f e c t i vef i l t e ri sl ow.Er r or s. ar es e e nasane vi de nc eof pr ogr e s soft hel ear ne r ' si nt e r l anguage , i .e . ,de ve l opment ale r r or s ,and ne e d notbe c or r e c t e d s i nc e he c an make s e l f ‑ c or r e c t i ons wi t h . hi s moni t or .Ther e f or e ,t he di r e ctc or r e ct i ons wi l lnothe l p t he l e ar ner ac qui r et her ul e s ;i not he rwor ds ,l angua gede vel opmentwi l lf ol l ow t he nat ur alor der .Thedi r e c tc or r e c t i on ofe r r or swi l lr at he ri nhi bi tt he l e ar ne r ' Sac qui s i t i ons i nc ei te nhanc e st hel e velofhi sanxi e t y.

Ri c har ds( 1 971 )s ugge s t sat hr e e‑ waycl as s i f i c at i onofe r r or s : ( 1 ) i nt e r l i nguale r r or s ,whi c h c or r e s pondst ot het r ans f e re r r or sf r om t he f i r s tl angua ge ,( 2 日nt r al i nguale r r or s ,and ( 3 ) deve l opme nt ale r r or s ,but bas i c al l y hear gue st wo t ype sofe r r or s :t hati s ,t r ans f e rer r or sand de ve l opme nt ale r r or s ;i nt r al i nguale r r or s ,among hi st hr e et ype s ,ar e c har ac t e r i s t i c al l yr e c ogni z e dasde vel opme nt ale r r or s .

Eve nt ual l y,hec at e gor i z e st hede vel opme nt ale r r or sac c or di ngt o t he i rs our c eofe r r or s .Theyar et hef ol l owl ng:

1 ) Ove r ge ne r al i z at i on:t hi shappe nswhe nt hel e ar ne rus e shi sknowl ‑ e dgeoft het ar ge tl anguager ul e s ,f orexampl e ,e r r or soft hes ubj e c t ‑ ve r b agr e e me nts uc h as" I tonl y ne e d as poonf ulofs al t.‥"( dat a t ake nf r om Takai ' smas t e rt he s i s ,1 986)c anbe 'puti nt ot hi sc at e gor y.

Though t he r ei sar oom f oranar gume ntove rde c i di ng whe t he ri ti s

deve l opme nt alort r ans f e re r r or ,Ri c har ds ( 1 971 )di s c us s e st hec aus eof

I NTERLANGUAGE ANALYSESAND THE PEDAGOGI CAL I MPLI CATI ONS 101 ove r ge ner al i z at i on i n t hi sc as east hel e ar ne rt r i e st or e duc ehi sl i n一 gui s t i cbur de ns uc hast heomi s s i onoft het hi r dpe r s on" ‑ S " .

2) I gnor anc eofRul eRe s t r i ct i ons :Ri c har dsdi s c us s e st hei gnor anc eof r ul e r e s t r i c t i onsast he appl i c at i on ofr ul e st o c ont ext s .whe r e t hey ac t ual l y do not a ppl y. The pr omi nente xampl e i s t he mi s us e of pr e pos i t i onss uc h as" pe opl ei npr e s e nt( buyat ube )‥ . "Thi ss houl d be" pe opl eatpr es e nt "( dat at ake n f r dm Takai ' smas t e rt he s i s ,1 986) . He r e ,t hemi s us eofpr e pos i onde r i ve sf r om t hedi f f e r e ntus ageof" at "

and " i n"f orde not i ng t het i me c onc e pti n Engl i s h:̀ ̀ at "i sus e d f or poi nt soft i mes uchasani di omat i cus ageof" atpr e s ent "me ani ngby

" now' ' ,whi l e" i n"i sus e d t oi ndi c at epe r i odsoft i me( s e eQui r k and Gr e e nbaum,1 973) .

3) hc ompl e t eAppl i cat i onofRul e s :Ri char dsdi s c us s e st hei nc ompl e t e appl i c at i onofr ul e sast hedeve l opme nt als t ageoft her ul eappl i c at i on whi c hr e qui r e st opr oduc eac c e pt abl es ent e nc e s .Fore xampl e ,Ri c har ds di s c us s e st hes amedi f f i c ul t yi nt heus eofaque s t i onamongl e ar ne r s wi t h many di f f e r e ntl angua gebackgr oundss uch as" Why weus ea t e e t hpas t e ? " Thi si sane xampl eofque s t i onf or mat i one r r or :omi s s i on of" do"and ofi nve r s i on ofs ubj e c t( dat at ake n f r om Takai ' smas t e r t he s i s ,1 986) .

4) Fal s eHypot he s i z e dConc ept s :Ri char dsdi s c us s e st hatt hi si sduet o f aul t y r ul e l ear ni ng at var ＼ i ous l eve l s and c at e gor i z e s i nt o t he de ve l opment ale r r or ss uch ast hec onf us i on be t we e n " t oo"

" s o" ,and り ve r yM .

Thus Ri c har ds ' mode l of e r r or anal ys i s e xpands t o a de ve l opment ale r r oranal ys i swhi chi sbas e dont het he or e t i c alas s ump‑

t i onsmadef i r s tbyChoms kyt hatl anguagel e ar ni ngl San' ac t i ve 'and

' c r e at i ve 'pr oc e s sandf ol l owst heKr a s he n' smode l .

4. CRI TI CI SM

Howe ve r ,t her ear es e ve r alc r i t i c i s msagai ns tt hede ve l opme nt al e r r oranal ys i s .Sc hac ht e randCe l c e ‑ Mur c i a ( 1980) poi ntoutt hatt he r e ar es i x pot e nt i alwe akne s s e si n e r r or ‑ anal ys t sr e s e ar c h.The y ar eas f ol l ows :

1 ) Asf ort heanal ys i sofe r r or si n i s ol at i on,t her e s e ar c he rs houl d c ons i de rbot he r r or sandnon‑ e r r or si nt het e xtorut t e r anc epr oduc e d byal e ar ne ri nor de rt oanal yz el e ar ne r ' ss t r at e gi e smor ede e pl y.

2) Asf ort hepr ope rc l as s i f i c at i onofi de nt i f i e de r r or s ,t he r ear emany que s t i onabl ede c i s i onsmadef ort hec l as s i f i c at i onofe r r or s .

Lat e r ,Li t t l e wood ( 1984) al s opoi nt soutt ha tt he r ear enoc l e ar di s t i nct i onst obedr awnamonge r r or swhi c hs e em t obepr oduc e dby pe r f or manc ef act or sorc ommuni c at i ons t r at e gi e s ,t heone sbyt her ul e s oft hel e ar ne r ' ss e cond l anguagec ompe t e nc e( orunde r l yi ng s ys t e m) ,

andt heone si nduc e db夕s pe c i f i ct e ac hi ngt e chni que s .

3) Asf ors t at eme nt sofe r r orf r e quenc y,s omee r r or ‑ anal ys i spr oj e c t s make ve r y i nf or mals t at eme nt sofe r r orf r e que nc y,whi c h may l ead s e r i ousomi s s i onsofer r or s .

4) Asf ori de nt i f i . ngpoi nt sofdi f f i c ul t yi nt het ar ge t ‑ l anguage ,t houg h t hi sr e l at e st ot heabovebot h pr obl e msoft hec l as s i f i c at i on andf f e ‑ que nc y ofe r r or s ,t her emay be a pr obl e m ofavoi danc eofdi f f i c ul t i t e msbyt hel ea r ne r .

Ⅰ nt hi spoi nt ,e xempl i f yi ngt heca s eofavoi danc eoft her e l at i ve c l aus eby J apane s eand Chi ne s es t ude nt si n Schac ht e r ' ss t udy ( 1974) ,

Kr as he n ( 1983) expl a i nst henot i onofavoi danc ef r om t hepoi ntofhi s

moni t orhypot he s i sasf ol l ows :t hel e ar ne rc ons c i ous l y knowst her ul e

we l le nough t o make t he r e pal r ,t he n hi s moni t orwor ks .Butt he

I NTERLANGUAGE ANALYSESAND THE PEDAGOGI CAL I MPLI CATI ONS 103 l earnerknows onl y enough oft he rul e t o t el lt he di f f er ence bet ween hi sorherf i r stl anguPgeand t het ar getl anguage;and t her epai ri st oo di f f i cul t t o make,t he l ear ner avoi ds t he use of t he t ar get l ang uage rul e.

5) As f or t he des cr i pt i on oft he causes t o syst emat i c err or s,a l ar ge

t r ansf erordevel opment aler r ors.

6) As f ort he bi ased nat ur e ofsampl i ng pr ocedures,t he sampl i ng i s rar el y ‑ " random"i n t he st at i st i calsense oft he word si nce r esearc her s wor k wi t h avai l abl e subj ect s and do r esear ch wi t h exi st i ng cl as se sof st udent s.

Thus,t here ar e sever alpr obl ems r ecogni zed by r esear cher s i n t hi sf i el d.W hen lanal yzed t hedat a i n my mast ert hesi s( Takai ,1 986) , If aced si mi l arpr obl emsst at ed by Schacht erand Cel ce‑Mur ci a ( 1 980) . Among t he pr obl ems,t he f i f t h cri t i ci sm ment i oned above i s t he quest i on I r ai sed i n t hi s paper:t he di st i nct i on bet ween t he t r an s f er er r or sand t he devel opment alerror s.

Looki ng att he cat egori zat i onsofeach approach,t here seem st o be conf l i ct i ng j udgment s on t he same probl ems such as Ki mi zu ka' s spl i t concepti n cont r ast i ve anal ysi s and Ri chards'cat egory ofi g nor ‑ ance of r ul e r est ri ct i ons of t he devel opment aler r or s wi t h whi ch t he er r or son preposi t i onsar e concerned.

Thi scoul d beexpl ai ned･ t hatt heunder l yi ng assumpt i on ofb ot h

anal yses i s basi cal l y di f f erent :as t he cont rast i ve anal ysi s st at ed, t he

i nvest i gat i on l ooksatt hesur f ace l eveland compar e t het wo l angu age

syst ems,whi l et hedevel opment aler roranal ysュ sSt ressesOn t heproc es s

oft hel anguagedevel opment swi t hi n t hesecond l anguage.Conseque nt ‑

l y,t he devel opment al err or anal ysi s,under t he hypot hesi s t hat t he

f i r s tl anguageac qui s i t i on‑ e qual st he .s e c ondl angua geac qui s i t i on,c at ‑ e gor i z e s t he l anguage ac c or di ng t o t he i t e msoft he f i r s tl anguage a c qui s i t i onor de r ,us ual l y a s s ume dbyt hec ompl exi t yoft hel anguage a nd t he f r e que nc y oft he gr ammat i c ali t e ms at t e s t e d by t he f i r s t

1

l anguageac qui s i t i onr e s e ar c he r ss uc has" Dul ayandBur t "( s e eDul ay ,

ヨur tandKr a s he n,1 982) .

I nt hecont r as t i veanal ys ュ sappr oac h,ont heot he rhand,t het wo di f f e r e ntl anguages ys t e msar ec ompar e d. Fort hebe gi nne r soft he s e c ond l anguage ,t he l ogl C alexpl anat i on bas e d on t he c ompar i s on be t we en t wo l anguages ys t e mss e emst obemor ec ompr e he ns i bl et o t hel e ar ne r st hangl Vl ngj us ti nput sasKr as he ns t at e d.The r e f or e ,t he di f f i cul t yofac qui r i ngt hes e c ondl anguages houl dbede f i ne df r om t he r e s ul t sofc ompar i s onoft het wol anguages ys t e ms ;andwhe nne e de d ,

t heexpl i c i tc ompar i s on bet we ent het wol angua ges ys t emss houl dbe gl Ve nt Ot hel e ar ne r s .

The next que s t i on i s how t o de c i de whi ch e r r or s ar e

deve l opme nt alt ype and whi ch ar e t r ans f e r t ype. I ts e e ms t o be

s ens i bl et oc ons i de rt hatt hel e ar ne rwi t hl ow pr of i c i e nc yoft het ar get

l anguaget e ndst omakemor et r ans f e rer r or st hant heonewi t hhi gh

pr of i c i e nc yoft het ar getl anguage .Ast hecr i t e r i onalme t hわdt ode c i de

t he l e ar ne r s 'pr of i c i e nc y f r om t he i rpr oduc t i on s uch a s wr i t i ngs or

ut t e r anc e s ,i tc anbeas s ume dt hatT‑ uni tanal ys ュ sS houl dbeappl i e dt o

t heer r oranal ys e si nor de rt ocl ar i f yt hedi s t i nct i onsbet we ent r ans f e r

e r r or sand de ve l opme nt ale r r or s ,butt hee mpl r l C alr e s e a . r c h f ort hi s

appl i c at i onhast obedonei nt hef ut ur e.

I NTERLANGUAGE ANALYSESAND THE PEDAGOGI CAL I MPLI CATI ONS 105

5 . COI NCLUSl ONS,PEDAGOGI CAL L MPuCATl ONS AND uMl ‑ TAT1 0NS

Wehavel ookedatt woma j ort ype sOfe r r oranal ys ュ s :C Ont r aS t i ve anal ys i s whi c h de al s wi t h t he t r ans f e r t ype e r r or s , and t he deve l opme nt ale r r oranal ys i s .Si nc et he r ear eobvi ous l y t wot ype sof er r or s ,wec annotabandon oneort heot he r .Thei mpor t antt hi ng l S how t oanal yz et hedat aofi nt e r l anguage.AsSe l i nke radvoc at e s ,t he r e s e ar c he r ss houl d l ook att hr e e pr oduc t s :onei sus e d f ort hef i r s t l anguage c r i t e r i a,and t he s e c ond i s us ed f ort he s e c ond l anguage cr i t er i a whi ch c an be t he pr oduc t s by t he nat i ve s pe ake r s oft he l anguage ,andt het hi r di st hel e ar ne r ' ss e c ondl anguagepr oduc t s .The r e s e ar c he r s ,t hus ,c ompar et hel e ar ne r ' spr oduc t sori nt e r l anguagedat a wi t h t he s ec r i t er i a.Fort hes t r uc t ur alanal ys ュ s ,f ore xampl e ,t her e ‑ s e a r c he rc anf ol l ow t heConc i s eGr ammarofCont e mpor ar yEngl i s hby Qui r kandGr e e nbaum ( 1 973) .

I n or de rt o ove r c omeoneoft hemaj or Jpr obl e msoft hee r r or anal ys e s ,T‑ uni tanal ys ュ si sas s ume dt obeus e dt odi s t i ngui s ht het wo t ype sofe r r or s :t r ans f e re r r or sand de ve l opme nt ale r r or s .Themode l whi c h Ihavepr opos e d asahypot he s i she r es houl d bet e s t e d i n t he f ur ur e .Wi t houtt he s eempl r l C alr e s e ar ch lc annots t at et hede f i ni t e pr opos al f or t he appl i c at i on of t he T‑ uni t anal ys i s t o t he e r r or ana l ys e s , but we c an as s ume t he s e mul t i pl e appl i c at i on of i nt e r l anguageanal ys e sgl Ve SuSt heans we rf ort hepr obl e ms .

Aspe dagogl C ali mpl i c at i ons ,t e ac he r sand r e s e ar che r swho ar e

bi l i ngualand haveanal yt i c alknowl e dgeofbot h l angua ge s ,f i r s tl an一

guageandt hes e c ondl anguage,C angl Vet heappr opr i at ee r r orc or r e c ‑

t i onsac cor di ngt ot her e s ul t soft he s eanal ys e si nc l as s .

Tos t ude nt swi t hl owe rpr of i c i e ncyl e ve loft het ar ge tl angua ge ,

i t i s mor e e f f e c t i ve t o gi ve e xpl i c i t c ompar i s on of t wo l anguage s ys t emsf ort hei t e m on whi c h t he y madean er r or ,s i nc ee r r or sar e s ome t i me se qui val entt o t he i mpl i c i tque s t i onss t ude nt sar e as ki ng.

Es pe c i al l yJ apane s es t ude nt sdon' ts e e m t oas kque s t i onsve r yof t eni n c l as s .Ac c or di ng t o t hedat a oft heque s t i onnai r e sIobt ai ne d i n my c l as s ,mos ts t ude nt swantmet oc or r e c tt he i re r r or sexpl i ci t l yi nt he i r c ompos i t i on. 5

Tos t ude nt swi t hhi ghpr of i c i e ncyl eve loft het ar getl anguage ,i t i smor ee f f e c t i venott ogl Vedi r e c tc or r e c t i onbutt ohavet he m c or r e c t byt hems e l ve sasKr as he n' sasmoni t orhypot he s i spr e di c t s ,s i nc et he s e e r r or sc anbepr e di c t e dasdev昌 l opme nt ale r r or s .I nt hi sc as et e ac he r s s houl d gi vet he m enough i nputi n t het ar ge tl anguageasKr as hen' s i nputhypot he s i spr e di ct s . Eve nt ual l y,t het ar ge tl anguages houl dbe us e d a s t he l anguage ofi ns t r uc t i on i n t he c l a s s r oom i n or de r t o maxi mi z et hee f f e ctofl e ar ne r s 'l anguagel e ar nl ngandac qui s i t i onwi t h af ul lofi npu t .

The r e s ul t sofe r r oranal ys e sc an be al s o us e d f orde s i gni ng mat e r i al s and c ur r i c ul a f or di f f e r e nt pr of i c i e ncy l e vel s of .l e ar ner s . Thus ,t hei nt e r l anguageanal ys e sar ee xt r eme l yval uabl epe dagogl C al l y.

5.1 nt heque s t i o nna i r ea b outs t ude nt s 'c o mpo s i t i o ni nmy1 98 8C l a s ss t ude nt s

we r ea s ke dwhe t he rt he ywa nt e dt het e a c he rt oc o r r e c tgr a mma t i c a le r r o r s

i nde t a i li ft he r ewe r ea ny.Ther e s ul ti sa sf o l l ows :t he r ea r e

s t ude nt s

whoa ns we r e d

" ye s "t ot hi sque s t i o nouto f2 8s t ude nt si nt hec l a s s .

I NTERLANGUAGE ANALYSESAND THEPEDAGOGI CAL I MPLI CATI ONS 107

BI BuOG‑ RAPHY

Br own , H.D.一1 980. Pr i nc i pl e s o f Lan gua ge Le ani n g and Te ac hi n g.

Engl ewoodCl i f f s ,N. ∫ . : Pr e nt i c e ‑ Hal l .

Choms ky , Noam.‑ 1 965. A s pe c t so f The The o r y o fSynt a x . Cambr i dge , Mas s achus e t t s :TheM. Ⅰ .T.Pr e s s .

Code r ,S.Pi t .1 975.Er r or ‑ anal ys i s ,I nt e r l anguageandSe c ondLangt i a ge Ac qui s i t i on ,Lan gua ge Te ac hi n g and Li n gui s t i c s :Ab s t r ac t , 8 ( 4 ) : 201 ‑21 8.

Dul ay , H.C. , M.K.Bur tand S.D.Kr as hen.1 982. Lan gua ge T wo . 0Ⅹf or d:oxf or dUni ve r s i t yPr e s s .

El l i s , Rod.1 985. Unde r s t andi n g Se c o nd Lan gua geAc qui s i t i o n. Oxf or d:

0Ⅹf or dUni ve r s i t yPr e s s .

Hat c h,Eve l yn Mar c us s e n.1 983. Ps yc hol i n gui s t i c s . ･A Se c o ndLan gua ge Pe r s Pe c t i v e . Rowl ey , Mas s achus e t t s :Ne wbur y Hous ePubl i s he r s ,

I nc.

Ki mi z uka,Sumako.1 977. Te ac hi n gEn gl i s ht oJ a pane s e . Moab,Ut ah:A Nept ur eBookPubl i s he dbyTai lFe at he r .

Kr as he n,St e phe nD.1 983.Newmar k' S " Ⅰ gnor anc eHypot he s i s "andCur ‑ r e ntSe c ondLanguageAc qui s i t i onThe or y,i n Lan gua geT l l anS f e r i nLan gua geLe ami n g ,Sus an M. Gr s sandLar r y Se l i nke r( Eds . ) . Rowl ey,Mas s ac hus et t s :Ne wbur yHous ePubl i s he r s ,I nc.

Kr a s hen,St ephe n D .andTr ac yD.Te r r el l .1 983. TheNat w alAp pr o ac h:

Lan gua geAc qui s i t i o ni nt heCl as s r o o m. Haywar d,Cal i f or ni a:The Al emanyPr e s s .

Lado,Robe r t .1 957. Li n gui s t i c sAc r o s sCul t ur e s . AnnAr bor :Uni ve r s i t y ofMi c hi ganPr e s s .

Li t t l e wood , Wi l i am.1 984. Fo r m' gnandSe c o ndLan gua geLe ani n g. 'Lan‑

gu a ge Ac qui s i t i o nRe s e ar c handi t sI mpl i c at i o nsf o rt heCl as s r o o m.

Cambr i dge :Cambr i dgeUni ve r s i t yPr e s s .

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