1CharacteristicsofJapaneseAdvertising InordertodefinethecharacteristicsofJapaneseadvertisingitisinstructive tostartwithareviewofthemostcommonlyuseddescriptionsofJapanese advertisingbyresearchers,journalists,andotherobservers.Althoughthese descriptionsareu

‑Areviewofthetheoreticalandempiricalevidence一

CarolusL.C.Praet

InthispaperweexplorethecharacteristicsofJapaneseTVadvertising.

Inthefirstsectionwereviewtheliteraturetoidentifythecharacteris‑

ticsofJapaneseadvertisingthataremostoftenmentionedbybothf6reign andJapanesecommentators.Thèsoftselling'naturewasfbundtobethe mostcommonlyuseddescriptionofJapaneseadvertising.

Theterm̀softselrinturncanbedividedintoanumberofsub‑

characteristics.Inthesecondsectionwereviewthesesub‑characteristics andthetheoreticalexplanationsgivenforthem,whileaddingsomeobserva‑

tionsofourown.

Inthethirdsectionwethenreviewtheempiricalliteratureconcerning JapaneseTVadvertising.

Finally,wediscusssomelimitationsoftheexistingbodyofempirical literatureandmakesuggestionsfbrfutureresearch.

1CharacteristicsofJapaneseAdvertising

InordertodefinethecharacteristicsofJapaneseadvertisingitisinstructive tostartwithareviewofthemostcommonlyuseddescriptionsofJapanese

advertisingbyresearchers,journalists,andotherobservers.Althoughthese descriptionsareusuallybasedonpersonalobservationsbytheauthors, ratherthanonempiricaldata,theycanbeconsideredindicativeofthechar‑

acteristicsofJapaneseadvertising.

〔151〕

1̀Softse閥',̀lmage',and̀Mood'

OneofthemostfrequentlyuseddescriptionsfbrJapaneseadvertisingisthe term̀softselr,asopposedtothèhardsel1'1)approachthatiscommoninthe US(Mueller,1987;Mueller,1992;Tanaka,1993;Johansson,1994;Nariuand Yamamoto,1994;Herbig,1995;JohanssonandNonaka,1996;EastAsianEx‑

ecutiveR6ports,1996;deMooij,1998).

Mueller(1992)providesthef6110wingdefinitionof̀softselrand̀hard

selr:

SoftSell:〔T〕heprimaryemphasisisoncreatingamoodoranatmosphere ratherthanonhighlightingtheproductanditsfeatures.Thismaybe achievedthroughtheuseofabeautifulsceneorthedevelopmentofan emotionalstoryorverse.Humanemotionalsentimentsareemphasized overclear‑cut,product‑relatedappeals.Thetoneislowkeyandthecom‑

municationstyletendstobemoresuggestivethandirect.

HardSell:〔T〕heprimaryemphasisisondistinguishingtheproductfrom thecompetition.Comparisons,eitherofaparticularcriterionortheprod‑

uctingeneral,arecommon.Explicitcomparisonsmaymentionthecom‑

petitionbyname.Implicitcomparisons,withstatementssuchas"number one"and"leader,"alsosignalahard‑sellapproach.Thetoneishighkey andthecommunicationstyleisaggressive.

TheWords̀image',̀mood',̀emotionarand̀sentimental'areusedtorefer tothèsoftselrnatureofJapaneseadvertising(Kilburn,1987b;TheEcono‑

mist,1993;JohanssonandNonaka,1996;DiBenedettoetal.,1992).

Sei's(1990)descriptionofJapaneseadvertisingcanbeconsideredrepre‑

sentatlve:

1)InJapan,theterm̀softsel1'iscalledteian‑gata, gata(NariuandYamamoto,1994).

̀hardsell'isknownassettoleu一

AnothercharacteristicofJapaneseCMsisthat,unlikethedemonstrative argumentationofadvertsintheU.S.(̲)heretheappealismoresen‑

timental.Insteadofsayingthisiswhat'sgoodabouttheproduct.the apProachistocreateanengagingmood‑image.

AnarticleinEastAsianExecutiveReports(1996)describesJapanese advertisingasf6110ws:

ForthemostpartJapaneseadvertisinghasbeen"soft‑sell,"relyingonthe useofcelebrities,attractivegraphics,musicorcatchysloganstosellprod‑

ucts.A"hard‑sell"approach,usinganalyticallogic,productcomparison,or

"annoyandattractattention"tactics ,isnotascommon.

Theauthoroftheabovearticlementionstheuseofcelebrities,attractive graphics,musicandcatchyslogansasconcreteexamplesorsub‑

characteristicsoftheJapanesesoftsellapProachtoadvertising.

OtherdescriptionsofJapaneseadvertisingmentiontheuseofshort commercials(Herbig,1995),theimportanceofcorporateidentificationand image(lmanishi,1994;Tanaka,1993;Herbig,1995),andtheappearanceof

foreignersandforeigncelebrities(Fields,1989a,b;Herbig,1995;Matsui,1996;

Yamaguchi,1997).Thesecharacteristicscanalsobeconsideredaspartofthe softsellstyleofadvertising.

TherethusapPearstobeageneralconsensusamongbothJapaneseand Westernauthorsthat,whereasWestern(=American)advertisingusually stressestheattributesandfunctionoftheproductinarational,direct,and logicalway,Japaneseadvertisinggenerallyusessuggestiveandindirect appeals2).

WhereasmostcommentatorsoftheJapaneseadvertisingscenehave

2)Moeran(1996),inhisseminalanthropologicalaccountoftheworkofaIarge

Japaneseadvertisingagency,recountsofacreativeteamworkingonacertain

accountarguingthat"advertisingisneitherrationalnorlogical".

beenstressingitssoftsellingnature,othershavearguedthatthisdoesnot meanthatallJapaneseadvertisingischaracterizedbyasoftsellapProach (Fields,1989a).1

Johansson(1994)haspointedoutthatmorerecentJapaneseTVcom‑

mercialshavefeaturedahardsellapproach,especiallyinthefrequently purchasedconsumergoods(detergents,soap,andshampoo),computerand softdrinkproductcategories.

ThereasonforthemorehardsellingapProachmentionedbyJohansson maybefoundinthefactthatinthecategoryofdetergents,shampoosand soaps,oneofthemainplayersinthemarketisProcter&Gamble.Procter&

Gambletendstouseaworldwide,standardizedapproachintermsofadver‑

tisingformat.Examplesofthisarecomparativeadvertising,productbene趾 demonstrations,andtestimonials.Procter&Gambletendstobemarket leader‑althoughnotinJapan‑andhassetaworldstandardf6radvertising intheproductcategoriesinwhichitcompetes.Localcompetitorshave tendedtoimitatetheProcter&Gambleadvertisingstyle,whichisalsothe caseinJapanwithKaoandLioガbenchmarking'Procter&Gamble.The computerandsoftdrinkproductcategoriesarealsoglobalindustriesin whichAmericancompaniestendtobemarketleaders.Moreover,these productcategoriestendtobeconsideredtobemoreappropriatefbrusinga standardizedadvertisingapproach,usuallyanAmerican‑styleapproach.

Nevertheless,thegenerallyacceptedviewofJapaneseadvertising

seemstobethatittendstobecharacterizedbyasoftsellratherthana

hardsellapProach.

2ExplanationsforthesoftsellingnatureofJapaneseadvertising

SeveralexplanationsforthesoftsellingnatureofJapaneseadvertisinghave beenproposed.Belowweshallgiveanoverviewofthemostimportantex‑

planations.Theexplanationshavebeenarrangedaccordingtoanumberof sub‑characteristicsthattogetherformtheadvertisingstyleknownas̀soft selr.

Characteristic1=Littleinformationconcerningproductattributes

lHigh‑contextcommunicatiOn

ExplanationsforthesoftsellingnatureofJapaneseadvertisingasoPPosed

tothehardsellingnatureofAmericanadvertisingareoftenculturalin orientation.Oneculturalexplanationisbasedontheconstructsoflow‑

contextandhigh‑contextcommunicationasproposedbyAmericananthro‑

pologistEdwardT.Hall,whohasdividedculturesintothosethatuselow‑

contextcommuhicationstylesandthosethatusehigh‑contextcommunica‑

tion 、styles(Hall,1976).Communicationstylesinhigh‑contextculturesempha‑

sizeinterpersonalrelationships,physicalsetting,socialcircumstances,shared

knowledge,andnon‑verbalandbodylanguage.Communicationstylesin

low‑contextculturesstressverballanguage:unambiguousspokenorwritten

messages.Inlow‑contextcultures,meaninghastobetransmittedexplicitly

andverballytobeunderstood.

Japanisanexampleofahigh‑contextculture,whereastheUnited States‑andmostwesterncountries‑arelow‑contextcultures.Thisdiffer‑

enceincommunicationstyleisalsofoundintherespectiveadvertising

stylesofbothcountries,translatingintoasoftsell(=high‑context)apProach

toadvertisinginJapanandahardsell(=low‑context)apProachtoadvertis‑

ingintheUnitedStates.

Consequently,forpeoplefromalow‑contextculture,Japaneseadvertis‑

ingoftenseemstobenonsensical,non‑logical(Johansson,1994;Johansson

andNonaka,1996)or̀irrelevant'(Tanaka,1993).Formostwesternersfrom

low‑contextcultures,muchofJapaneseadvertisingisnotrecognizableas

advertising,sinceitapPearstobeunconnectedtothenatureoftheproduct

thatisadvertised(Sei,1990),atleastuntiltheendofthecommercial.

Therefore,theassertionthatmostJapaneseadvertisingisillogical, unrecognizableasadvertisingorevenirrelevantisaculturallybiasedone.

Mostwesternerssimplylackthecontextual,culturalknowledgethat

JapaneseconsumershaveofJapanesesociety,companies,brands,advertising history,culturalsymbols,sportsstars,entertainers,actors,singersandthe

like,whichissharedbymostJapaneseandisreferredtoasブoshiki(common

knowledge).OnceawesternerhasbeenlivinginJapanforaprolongued

periodoftime,hasmasteredthelanguageandhasacquiredthisjoshiki, mostJapaneseadvertisementsnolongerapPeartobeenigmatic.

2Emphasisonin‑storeinformation

Anotherexplanationforthesoft‑sellingnatureofJapaneseadvertising arguesthatinJapantheemphasistendstobeonin‑storeinf6rmation

(Johansson,1994).InJapan,thereallearningaboutproductsallegedlydoes notoccuruntiltheconsumergoestotheretailstore.Japaneseconsumers tendtoobtaininformationbygoingtothemanyretailstoresandcomparing theactualproductsbeforemakingdecisionsaboutwhatbrandtopurchase (NariuandYamamoto,1994).Tanaka(1993)reportsempiricaldatashowing thatJapaneseconsumerstendtobein‑storedecision‑makers.Consumer in‑storedecisionmakingrangedfrom69.6percentfbrliquorstoresto96.5 percentforlargesupermarkets.

IncontrastwiththesituationinAmericawhereshopstendtobe

locatedfarfromresidentialareas,inJapantherearemanystoreswithina1‑

kilometerrangefromwheretheconsumerlives(NariuandYamamoto,1994), makingiteasiertoobtaininformationaboutproductsattheretailstore level.EmpiricalresearchcomparingshoppinghabitsofAmericanand JapanesehousewiveshasshownthatJapanesehousewivesshopmuchmore frequentlythantheirAmericancounterparts(Tanaka,1993),thusincreasing theirexposuretoin‑storeinformationandpromotion.

Inaddition,manufacturersoftenkeepso‑caUedmissionarysalesmenin thebiggerstorestohelpdemonstrate,expl3inandselltheirproductlines (Johansson,1994).IngeneralthesefactorswouldexplainwhyJapanese advertisershavelessneedformentioningproductattributesinadvertising, whyitissuf丘cientfbradvertiserstouseimageadvertisinginordertomake peoplevisitretailstores,andwhyinmanycasesshort15‑secondmessages suf丘ce(NariuandYamamoto,1994).

However,withtheincreasingpopularityofdiscountstoresfeaturing mainlypart‑timeemployeeswhooftendonotknowmuchaboutthepro‑

ductsonsale,theneedformoreinformativeadvertisingmightalsoincrease.

Thesebig‑sizesub‑urbandiscountstoreshavestartedtoreplacethemany traditionalmom‑and‑popstoreslocatedinresidentialareas.Thesediscount storesusuallycanonlybereachedbycarandthisisstartingtochange Japanesetraditionalshoppinghabits,makingthemmoresimilartothoseof Americanconsumers.Inaddition,thefactthatmoreandmorewomenhave joinedtheworkfbrcehasalsocausedachangeinshoppinghabits.These changesmaymakethein‑storeinformationargumenttoexplainthelackof productinformationinadvertisingloseitsvalidity.

3Feel‑do‑learnhierarchyofadvertlsingeffects:importanceofIikeabil‑

ityandtopicality

Miracle(1987)hassuggestedthatthehierarchyofadvertisingeffectshasa differentorderinJapanthanintheUS.Accordingtothisauthor,thehierar‑

chyofadvertisingeffectsinJapanhasthefollowingsequence:feel‑do‑learn.

Theconsumerseesacommercial,1ikesit(feel),goestothestoreandbuys theproduct(do)andthenfindsoutabouttheproductbyusingit(learn).

ThiscontrastswiththegeneralassumptioninAmericaandEuropethatfor thewesternconsumerthesequenceofadvertisingeffectstendstostart withcognitiveprocessing(learn),followedbyaconativereaction(do)and finallyana」 駈ectivereaction(feel).InJapanthissequencethusissaidnotto startwithcognitivebutwithaffectiveprocessingoftheadvertisement(Her‑

big,1995)。

Likeability

Indeed,inJapanthethreenecessaryingredientsforlagoodcommercialare saidtobeitsabilitytoestablishempathy(加o肋%),likeability(hoka〃),anda feelingofintimacy(shi〃kinkan)onthepartoftheviewer(Matsui,1996).

Cognitivelearningabouttheproductdoesnotseemtobeanimportantgoal.

̀Ad vertisingliking'issaidtoplayanimportantroleamongJapanesecon‑

sumers(deMooij,1998)whotransfertheaffecttowardadvertisingtothe advertisedproduct(RamaprassadandHasegawa,1992).Infact,empiricalre‑

searchinJapanhasshownthatthereisaverystrongcorrelation(0.93)be‑

tweenacommerciarslikeabilityscoreandaconsumer'spurchaseintention (Yamaki,1996).Overtheyears,advertisers'experienceincombinationwith

empiricalresearchfindingshavestrengthenedtheviewheldbymostadver‑

tisersandadvertisingagenciesthatJapaneseconsumersneedtobe apProachedthroughlikeableadvertising.

159

Topicality

Morethangettinginformationaboutproductattributesandtryingtoper‑

suadetheconsumerintobuyingtheproduct,itisimportantforacommer‑

cialtobetalkedaboutbyconsumers.InJapan,̀topicality'(Moeran,1996;

Dentsu,ユ998)orwadaiseii'sconsideredtobeanimportantfunctionofadver‑

tising.TheACC3)concours‑theJapaneseequivalentoftheadvertising festivalinCannes‑evenhastheso‑calledwadaishoor̀prizeformosttalked aboutcommercialoftheyear'.Ithasbeenpointedouthowever,that topicalitydoesnotnecessarilyleadtohighersales(Matsuoka,1996).

ThustheAmericanviewofadvertisingaspersuasivecommunication doesnotapPeartobesharedbyJapaneseadvertiserswhotrytoapPease consumersthroughadvertisingthatscoreshighonIikeability(softsell) ratherthanannoythemwithpersuasiveargumentationtactics(hardsel1).

4Differenceinproductcategoriesadvertised

NariuandYamamoto(1994),havepointedoutthatJapaneseTVadvertising tendstofeaturemorecommercialsforconveniencegoodsthanAmerican advertising(64.9%vs.44.8%4)).Conveniencegoodstendtofeatureless informationconcerningproductattributesthanshoppinggoodsasaresultof alowerperceivedriskonthepartofconsumers,Thedifferentratioof advertisingf6rconveniencegoodsbetweenJapanandAmericathen,results inlessproductattribute‑relatedapPealsinJapaneseadvertising(Nariuand Yamamoto,1994).

3)TheAll‑JapanCommercialBroadcastingCounciI

4)CalculatedonbasjsofresearchdatabyRamaprassadandHasegawa,1992

Characteristic2=Uttlecomparativeadvertising

SeveralexplanationsforthevirtuallackofcomparativeadvertisinginJapan havebeensuggested.Th6mostimportantexplanationsarediscussedbelow.

1Culturaltendencytoavoidcon刊ictandpreserveharmony

Thelackofcomparativeadvertising,acommonformofadvertisinginAmer‑

ica,inJapanhasbeenexplainedbysomeobserversasresultingfromthe culturaltendencyamongJapanese‑andconsequentlyamongJapanese advertisers‑toavoidcon甜ctandseekharmony(Tanaka,1993;Herbig,1995).

TheinfluenceofConfucianism,whichstressestheimportanceofreciprocity andharmony,isconsideredtobein伽encingtheapproachtodoingbusiness ingeneralandconsequentlyalsothephilosophyofadvertisinginparticular.

Itisculturallynotacceptableandinbadtastetosaydenigratingthings aboutone'scompetitor(Kilburn,1987a;且erbig,1995;deMooij,1998),orto evensuggestthatone'sownproductissuperiortothecompetitor'sproduct.

WhereastheJapanFairTradeCommission(FTC)infacthasalloweduseof comparativeadvertisingsince1986,ithasatthesametimeestablishedsome guidelinestoensurecomparisonswouldbefairandbasedonaccuratefacts, preferablyobtainedfromindependentresearchbodies(Kilburn,1987a).

InadditiontotheexistenceofFTCguidelinesconcerningcomparative advertisingsomeindustrieshaveself‑imposedregulationsconcerningadver‑

tising.Moeran(1996)givesasanexampletheself‑imposedindustryregula‑

tionsconcerningadvertisinginthemedicalproductcategoryinJapan.Some oftheseregulationsprohibitmanufacturersfrommakingstatementsregard‑

ingthesuperlativequalityoftheirproductsandexplicitlyforl)idtheuseof suchwordsas̀absolutely',̀most,'or̀thebest...inJapan/theworld'(Moeran, 1996).Whencomparativeadvertisingisusedhowever,itgenera11ytendsto beindirect,oitenintheformofcomparinganew,improvedproductwi㌻h thecompany'solderversionofthesameproduct,orcomparingone'sprod一

uctwithanon‑specifiedcompetitor'sproduct.Recentlyhowever,Toyotahas usedacomparativenewspaperadvertisementinwhichitdirectlycompared itscarwithrivalsBMWandMercedes,listingthefeaturesofthethreecars

andclaimingasuperiorprice/performancecomparedtothecompeting brands.Thisapproachhowever,israthertheexceptionthantherule.

Pepsihasalsousedthe『comparativeadvertisingformatinJapan,whichwas quicklywithdrawnafterCoca‑Colafiledaprotestclaimingviolationof trademarkrights.Recently,someJapanesecompaniesinthetelecommunica‑

tionsindustryhavebeenusinganindirectcomparativeapproachintheir advertisingcampaigns,whichcanbeconsideredtobeculturallymore acceptablethantheuseofdirectcomparison.

2Equalityo何eaturesandfunctionalityamongcompetingproductsand thepracticeofcorporatebranding

Oneotherexplanationforthelackofcomparativeadvertisingisthatprod‑

uctsintheJapanesemarkettendtobeequalintermsoffeaturesandfunc‑

tionality,andthatthereforeuniquesellingpropositions(USP)don'tmake muchsense,sincethereisnothinguniqueaboutmostcompetingproductsin themarketAndevenifthereissomethinguniqueabouttheproduct,then theJapanesebusinesspracticesofbenchmarkingandre‑engilleeringtend tomakeuniqueproductfeaturesveryshort‑lived,sincetheyarequicklyimi‑

tatedandevenimproveduponbythecompetition(JohanssonandNonaka, 1996).

NariuandYamamoto(1994)explainthelackofsalientfunctionaldif‑

ferencesamongProductsbyreferringtothehomogeneityofJapanesecon‑

sumersresultinginroughlysimilarproductwantsandneeds.

Inaddition,Matsuoka(1996)haspointedoutandcriticizedthealleged habitofJapaneseadvertisingagenciestodifferentiateamongcompetingProd一

uctsonbasisofadvertisingexecution,eveniftheproductitselfpossesses differentiatingfunctionalattributes.

Inthiscontext,Moeran(1996)quotesdataaboutperceived̀brandpar‑

ity'‑thefactthatconsumerscannotdistinguishbetweendifferentbrands onthemarket‑byconsumersindifferentcountriesintheworld.Percep‑

tionsofbrandparitybyJapaneseconsumersarethehighestintheworldat 95%,whereasintheUSconsumerperceptionsofbrandp4ritylieso卑e‑

wherebetween60and70%5).Whetherthehighscoreforperceivedbrand parityamongJapaneseconsumersisaresultofanactuallackoffunctional differencesamongproductsormerelyaresultofaIackofadvertisingstress‑

ingfunctionaldifferencesisnotclear.Infact,thehighscoreonperceived brandparityf6rJapanmaybearesultoftheJapanesepracticeofusing corporatebrandingasopposedtoproductbranding(Tanaka,1993).Several authorshavepointedouttheimportanceofcorporatebrandinginJapan (lmanishi,1994;Tanaka,1993).

Animportantconsequenceofthepracticeofcorporatebrandingfor advertisingstyleisthatitbecomesmoreimportanttostressthecorporate imageratherthanproductattributes.Ithasbeenpointedoutthatcorporate imagesaredifficulttocompare,thusleadingtolesscomparativeadvertising (NariuandYamamoto,1994).

5)Moeranappearstotreattheterm̀brand'asequaltotheterlh̀product'.The

dataabout̀brandparity'quotedbyMoeranthusmayactuallybenothing

morethanareflectionofthedifferenceinbrandmanagementbetweenJapan

andAmerica.WhenJapaneseconsumersareaskedabout̀brands'theywill

generallyinterpretthisasmeaning̀corporatebrands',whereasAmerican

consumerswillinterpretthetermtomeaǹproductbrands'.Itwasnotclear

however,whetherthequestionsinJapanwerephrasedintermsof̀product

parity'or̀brandparity'.

3̀Split‑account'systemandabsenceofrulesagainstcompeting accounts

Onemorereasonfbrthelackofcomparativeadvertisingissaidtobea resultoftheso‑called̀split‑account'systemintheJapaneseadvertising world(Moeran,1996).ThisreferstothepracticebyJapaneseadvertisersto dividetheiraccountsacrossseveralagencies.Asaresult,Japaneseadvertis‑

ingagenciescanworkforclientsthatarecompetinginthesameindustry (Johansson,1994).Japaneseclientsaresaidgenerallynottomindaboutthis (Economist,1993b),althoughithasalsobeenreportedthatincreasingcom.

petitioninJapanhasmadesomeclientsreluctanttosharetheiradvertising agencieswithbitterrivals(Economist,1993a).Aresultofthispracticeisthat whencolleaguesofthesameadvertisingagencyareworkingonaccounts

forrivalingcompaniestheywillbereluctanttoattackeachother'sclients throughcomparativeadvertising.

Inaddition,theJapaneseadvertisingindustryisofanoligopolisticna‑

turewithDentsuandHakuhodocontrollingmostofthecommercialtimeon television.EvenrivalingcompanieswillbeforcedtodealwithDentsuand Hakuhodoiftheywanttheiradvertisingbroadcastontelevision.Thisissaid toresultinalackofcomparativeadvertisingevenamongrivals.Asforthe exampleofthecomparativeadvertisingbyPepsi,thePepsiaccountwas handledbyDentsu,whereastheCoca‑ColaaccountwashandledbyHakuho‑

do,makingcomparativeadvertisingpossible(NariuandYamamoto,1994).

Characteristic3=Celebrityadvertising

PerhapsoneofthemostsalientcharacteristicsofJapaneseadvertisingisits relianceollcelebrities.Itisconsideredoneofthetypicalelementscharacter‑

izingthesoftsellstyleofadvertising.

Celebritiesinadvertisinggenerallyincludefamouspeoplefromthe

worldofsports,movies,art,music,gourmetcuisine,andmedia.Alsothefre.

quentapPearanceinJapaneseadvertisingbyforeigncelebritiesandstars fromtheworldofentertainment(film,sports,fashion,andmusicscene)isa distinctivefeature(Fannin,1996;Fields,1989a,b;且erbig,1995;Matsui,1996;

Yamaguchi,1997).

CelebrityapPearancesinJapaneseadvertisinghowever,arenotlimited tofamousactors,singers,sportsstars,orcomedians.̀Talents'areanimpor‑

tantcelebritycategorythatappearinadvertisingcampaignsinlargenum‑

bers.Alargesubcategoryofthesètalents'ismadeupofyoungaspiring modelsthatarescoutedincontestsorauditionsbytalentagencies.Manyof theseyoungpeoplestarttheircareersbyappearinginadvertising,where theygainalotofexposureandbecomewellknownandpopularamongthe public.SubsequenUy,theyarecastinpopularsoapoperas,quizzesandother entertainmentprogramsontelevisionwhilecontinuingtoappearinTVcom‑

mercials.Hence,thesamecelebritiesandtalentsoftenappearbothinthe TVprogramsandintheaccompanyingcommercials.

Asaresultofmanyfifteen‑secondcommercialsonJapaneseTV, communicationcluttertendstobeheavy.Amidstthisclutter,oneofthe bestwaysofattractingattentiontoacompany'sproductisthoughttobe throughcelebrityendorsement(Moeran,1996;Sato,1997).

Wehaveseenabovethatgenerating̀topicality'tendstobeanimpor‑

tantobjectiveofadvertisinginJapan.Celebritiesand̀talents'aretypically chosenonbasisoftheirabilitytogeneratètopicality'(wadaisez)(Moeran, 1996).̀Topicality'referstothefactthatpeopletendtotalkaboutthecom‑

mercialifapopular̀talentlappearsinit.Onewayofenhancingacampaign's topicalityistocombineapopularcelebritywithoneormoreotherpopular celebrities,atrendwhichhasbeenincreasinginrecentyears(Matsui,1996;

Sato,1997).Acelebrityor̀talent'isalsochosenonbasisofthèimpact'(Asa.

hina,1997;Sato,1997)sheisabletogenerate.Ithasbeenpointedout however,thatthereareexamplesofbothsuccessfulandunsuccessfuluseof talentsandcelebrities.Inorderfbrcelebrityadvertisingtobesuccessful, thereneedstobeanappropriatesymboliclinkbetweentheproductconcept andthecelebrity(Matsuoka,1996;Sato,1997).

Anotherreasonfortheuseofcelebritiesliesintheirabilitytodifferenti‑

ateamongproducts.Aswasreferredtoabove,itisoftenarguedthat

‑especiallyinJapan‑manyproductsnolongerpossessclearattributesin

termsofqualityandfunctionalitythatcoulddifferentiatethemfromcompe‑

tingproducts.Oneofthemainmeritsofusing̀talents'incommercialsis theirabilitytogivethebrandàpersonality'or̀face'(Moeran,1996;Sato, 1997).However,oneproblemwiththeuseoftalentsisthattheyoften appearinadvertisingforseveralcompaniessimultaneously,thusconfusing theconsumerastowhatbrandwaspromoted.Thiswouldcertainlydefeat

thepurposeofproductdi」 匪erentiation,thereasonfbrusingthetalentinthe firstplace.Anotherproblemoccurswhentheimpactofthetalentismuch

strongerthantheimpactgeneratedbytheproduct,resultinginthecon‑

sumeronlyrememberingaboutthetalent(Sato,1997).

Characteristic4=importanceofthecompanynameandimage

Theimportanceofthecorporateimageandtheidentificationofthecom‑

panynameandlogoinJapaneseadvertisinghavebeenpointedoutby

severalauthors(Tanaka,1993;Imanishi,1994;Herbig,1995).Havingagood companyimageamongconsumersisconsideredveryimportantinJapan.

Mostcommercialsidentifythecompanynameandlogoattheendofthe commercial,presumablytoshowtheconsumerthatthecompanyisbacking

upitsproduct,thuscommunicatingafeelingoftrust,reliability,andsecurity

totheconsumer.Afavorablecorporateimageissaidtoinfiuengeconsumers'

商 学 討 究 第50巻 第1号

brandpurchaseintention(Tanaka,1993).Theimportanceofcorporateimage isoneexplanationforthepracticeofcorporatebranding,referredtoabove.

CorporatebrandinginJapanissaidtobemoreimportantthaninthewestern world,wheremostcompaniescarryproductbrandsanddonotidentifythe companybehindthebrand.Thustheimportanceofapositivecorporate imagewillin且uenceadvertisingstyle,leadingadvertiserstouseasoftsell apProach,ratherthanahardsellapProach.

Characteristic5:useofsongs

OneofthecharacteristicsofJapaneseTVadvertisingthatsetsitapartfrom AmericanadvertisingandthatisconsideredanelementofthesoftselI approach,istheuseofsongsasthemesongsinmanyadvertising campaigns.TVcommercialsinfactoftenfunctionasavehicletopromote

newpopsongs,throughtie‑ups 、withpopularartistsfromtheworldof Japanesepopmusic.Thebenefitfortheartistsandrecordcompaniesisthat

theyreceivefreeairplaythroughthefactthatthe15‑secondcommercials areshownfrequentlyonTVstations.Japaneseconsumerstypicallyhearthe latestsongsbytheirfavoriteartistsorhearacatchysongbyanewartistin

aTVcommercialandstartlookingforthesesongsinthekaraokeboxesto singwiththeirfriendsorbuytheCDatthelocalrecordstore.Accordingto datafor1997,0fthe23songsthatreachedoverallsalesofmorethanlmil‑

lionCDs,7hadfeaturedascommercialsongs(CMNow,1998).Thebenefit foradvertisersisthattheuseofmusicbypopularartistsincommercials willcreategoodwillamongthemanyfansofthesebandsandartists,which theyhopewillruboffpositivelyontotheproductadvertised.Oftenthe

artistsor̀talents'whosingtheadvertisingthemesongsalsoappearasthe maincharactersoftheadvertisement,thusassuringattentionfromthefa玲s, whotypicallyarethetargetgroupofthecommercial.InJapan,music

marketingandproductmarketinggohandinhand.

Songsaregenerallyusedtocreateapositiveandsoftimageandasa logicalresult,theuseofasongusuallyprecludesanargumentative approach.

3 JapaneseTVadvertisinginemplricalstudies

HavinghadalookatdescriptionsofJapaneseTVadvertisinginboththe academicandnon‑academicliterature,itisnownecessarytolookatthere‑

sultsofempiricalstudiesofJapaneseTVadvertising.Isthepictureof JapaneseTVadvertisingaspaintedonthebasisofqualitativeobservations upheldbyempiricaldata?

CharacteristicsofJapaneseTVadvertisingascomparedtoUSTV advertising

Atotalof6empiricalstudiesintheEnglish‑languageacademicliterature comparingJapanesewithUSTVadvertisingwereusedf6rreference.The resultswillbearrangedintothefollowingfburclassificationcategories:

IStrategy:informativeoraffective;

HFormandExecution:thisreferstostylistictechniquesandexecu‑

tionalformatsthatpackagetheadvertisingappealormessageintoa concreteforminordertopresentittotheaudience;

皿Typeofpeople,humanrelationships,genderroles,andcultural values;

lVLengthofcommercial,measuredinseconds.

1

a)lnformationalversusTransformationatStrategy6)

・NosigtLificantdifferenceinoverallstrategyfoundinbothcountries;

・Bothcountriesusetransfbrmationalstrategymoreoftenthaninf6r.

matiOnalStrategy;

・Nodifferenceintransformationalstrategiesinbothcountries;

・Largestdifferenceisintheuseandformatofinformational strategles;

・InJapaneveninformationaladstendtoincludeatransformational appeal;

・InJapanexecutionsofinfbrmationalcommercialstendtoberather emotionalinnature.(RamaprassadandHasegawa,1992)

b)Useofproductinformatigncues

JapaneseTVadvertising(ascomparedtoUSadvertising):

・Islessinformative ,thoughstillrelativelyinfbrmative(Lin1993);

・Usesahigheroverallnumberofinforniationalcues(LinandSalwen ,

1995),but

・Usesasmallervarietyofinformationalcuesinlessproductcatego‑

ries(LinandSalwen,1995),

6)RamaprassadandHasegawa(1992)usethefoUowingtypologydistinguishing informationalandtransformationaladvertising:"lnformationaladvertising presentsfactualinformation;theadshouldhavedatawhichtheconsumer acceptsasbeingverifiable.Transformationaladvertisingisaffect‑basedand endowstheuseofthebrandwithaparticularpositiveexperience."Theythen classifythistypologyintospecificstrategies.Informationalstrategiescanbe dividedintoa)hyperbole(anexaggeratedstatementthathasthegeneral appearanceofbeingfactuallybased,butisnotso),b)preemptive,c)USP,and d》comparative;Transformationalstrategiesaredividedintoa)brandimage,・b) userimage,andc》useoccasion.

五

・Usesmoreemotionalandsubjectiveinf6rmationalcuessuchas

packaging(Lin,1993;LinandSalwen,1995),taste,newideas,and companysponsoredresults(LinandSalwen,1995),andavailability cues(Lin,1993);

・Avoidspresentingclaimswithheavyrationalortangibleappeal suchasguarantees/warranties,quality,performance,safety,nutri‑

tion,specialoffers,price7)(Lin,1993;LinandSalwen,1995), independenttestresults,productperformance(BelkandBryce, 1986;Lin,1993;LinandSalwen,1995),

ingredientsorcomponents(BelkandBryce,1986;Lin,1993) FormandExecution

JaparieseTVadvertising(ascomparedtoUSadvertising)

・UsesIesscomparison(BelkandBryce ,1986;Ramaprassadand Hasegawa,1992;Lin,1993);

・Useslesshyperboleandsuperlatives(BelkandBryce ,1986;

Ramaprassadand且asegawa,1992);

・Useslesstestimonials(Lin ,1993);

・UsesmoreUSP8)andpreemptive9)strategies(Ramaprassadand 且asegawa,1992)

7)ThestudybyBelkandBryce(1986)contradictsthefindingsoftheLin(1993) andLinandSalwen(1995)studies,astheformerstudyfbundthatJapanese adstendtostresspricemorethanUSadsdo.Thedifferenceinfindingsmay becausedeitherbytimelagorsamplingerror.

8)ThestudybyBelkandBryce(1986)foundthatJapaneseadsdonottendto stressbranduniqueness,thuscontradictingtheRamaprassadandHasegawa (1992)且ndings.ThedifferenceinfindingsmaybeCausedeitherbytimelagor SamplingerrOr.

9)USPstandsfor̀UniqueSellingProposition'andrefersto"Theuniquebenefit claimedfbranadvertisedproductorservice"(TheDictionaryofAdvertising, 1986);Apreemptivestrategyreferstoanadvertisementthat"hasanobjec‑

tivelyver迅ablefact(s),butthefact(s)isnotthebasisforcomparisonnorisit pointedoutasbeingunique"(RamaprassadandHasegawa,1992)

・Usesmoreproductdemonstrations(BelkandBryce ,1986);

・UsesshortermessagesthanUSads(Lin ,1993);

・Usessongs(insteadofonlymusic ,whichismoreoftenthecasein USadvertising)tosetmoods(Lin,1993);

・Usesmorefemalevoice‑over(Lin ,1993;Sengupta,1995);

・Uses

,lessmalevoice‑over(Sengupta,1995);

・Useslessvoice‑overthroughoutthead(BelkandBryce ,1986);

・Usesmorelecturestylefbrdirectsalesmessages(insteadoftalking heads,whichisatechniquemoreoftenusedintheUS)(Lin,1993);

・Usesmorestillgraphics(comparedtomoreanimationinUS)(Lin ,

1993);

・Useslesstheslice‑of‑lifefbrmatthanUSadvertising(Lin,1993);

・UseslesshumorthanUSadvertising(Lin ,1993);

・Usessuperimposedwritingmorefrequently(BelkandBryce ,1986);

・Companynameorlogotendstobeidentifiedin94%ofcommercials ascomparedto56%ofUScommercials,tendstobeshownmore towardstheendofcommercialsinJapan,butapPearsfbrashorter timethanintheUS(Miracleetal,1992);

・Brandnametendstobeidentifiedlaterinthecommercialand appearsforashortertimeonscreenthaninUS(Miracleetal,1992);

・Theproductorpackagetendstobeshownlateronin30‑second commercials,butisshownlongerthroughoutthecommercialfor both15‑and30‑secondcommercials(Miracleetal,1992).

皿Typeofpeople,humanrelationships,genderroles,andcultural vaIues

Japaneseadvertising

・Useshighstatusspokespersonsmoreoften(BelkandBryce ,1986);

・Usesmorecelebrities ,andthosecelebritiestendtobemalerather thanfemalecelebrities;USadstendtousefewermalecelebrities

(Lin,1993);

・Usesmoreoftenfemaleannouncersandsexyfemalemodels(Belk andBryce,1986);

・Showsstrongerroledifferentiationbetweenmenandwomen:

WomenareshownlessofteninworkingrolesthaninUS;

WomenareshownmoreoftenindecorativerolethaninUS;

Womenaremoreoftenshowncooking,cleaning,andspending timeinpersonalbeautificationthanwomeninUS;

Japanesemenareshownrelaxingathomemoreoftenthan women,andmuchmoresothanisthecaseintheUS;

Japanesewomenareshownoftencleaning,takingcareofthe childrenandbeinginvolvedinpersonalbeautification,andmuch moresothanisthecaseintheUS(Sengupta,1995);

・Featureslessoftendepictionsoffamily(BelkandBryce ,1986);

・Lessoftenshowspeopletouching(BelkandBryce ,1986);

・Usesmaterialisticthemesmoreoften(BelkandBryce ,1986);

・Usesindividualisticappealslikèunique'and̀successfurlessoften (BelkandBryce,1986).

】VLengthofcommercialio)

Threeempiricalcross‑culturalstudiescomparingJapaneseandUSTV advertisingwerereviewedforlengthofcommercials.Theresultsare shownbelowinTable1.

TablelLengthoftelevisionadvertisementsinJapanandUS

Percentageofl5‑secondcommercials

Japan:68%(BelkandBryce,1986)US:10%(BelkandBryce,1986);

65%(Miracleetal,1992)30%(Miracleeta1,1992);

63.6%(RamaprassadandHase‑31.6%(RamaprassadandHasega‑

gawa,1992)wa,1992)

Percentageof30‑secondcommercials Japan:32%(BelkandBryce,1986)US:90%(BelkandBryce,1986);

34%(Miracleetal,1992)62%(Miracleetal,1992);

36.4%(RamaprassadandHase‑68.4%(RamaprassadandHasega‑

gawa,1992》wa,1992)

ThemajorityofJapanesecommercialstendtobeshort15‑second messages,whereasthemajorityofAmericancommercialstendtobe30 secondslong.TheimpressionofJapaneseadvertisingasmainlyconsisting ofshortcommercialsisthusempiricallyvalidated.

Conclusion

ThenotionofJapaneseadvertisingassoftsellisgenera11yconfirmedby empiricalstudies.

10)Totalsamplesizesfortherespectivestudieswere203(US)and191(Japan)for theBelkandBrycestudy;1228(US)and1253(Japan)fortheMiracleetal study;311(US)and373(Japan)fortheRamaprassadandHasegawastudy.Itis thereforetobeexpectedthatthefiguresmentionedbyMiracleetalwillre‑

flecttheactualstateofaffairSmoreclosely.

Wheninformativenessofadvertisingistakenasacriterion,thenotion thatJapaneseadvertisingtendstobesoftsellisgenerallysupPorted11).

However,itapPearsthatJapaneseadvertisingcannotbecallednon‑

informative.Theretendstobeaqualitativedifferenceratherthanaquan‑

titativedifferenceininformationbetweenthetwocountries.JapaneseTV advertisingdiffersfromAmericanTVadvertisingregardingthenatureof theinf6rmationprovided,thef6cusofinformationtendstobeondifferent kindsofinformationcues,stressingsubjectiveclaims,packaging,andava丑ab且ity claims,whereasAmericanadvertisingtendstostressmoretherational,tangi‑

ble,andobjectiveclaims.Informationaladvertisingtendstobeaccompaniedby atransformationalappea1,thussofteningthemessage.

ThenotionthatJapaneseadvertisingtendstoavoidusingcomparative advertisingandsuperiorityclaimsissupportedbyempiricalresearch.

Therelativeimportanceplacedonthecompanyname,logoandimageis alsosupportedbyempiricalresearchfindings.

TheclaimthatJapaneseadvertisihgheavilyreliesoncelebritiesis confirmed.

TheimpressionofJapaneseadvertisingasmainlyconsistingofshort commercialsisalsoempirica11yvalidated.

Asfarasculturalvaluesandthemesareconcerned,generallynospecif‑

icreferencesaremadeindescriptionsofJapaneseadvertising,presumably becausetheyarelesseasytodetect.Culturalvaluesandthemeshowever, canbeconsideredimportantfactorsinmarketingcommunications.Con‑

sumersgenerallydonotnoticetheunderlyingculturalvaluesbelongingto

11)Tallaka(1993)reportsresultsofastudyconductedbyHasegawathat

comparedAmericanandJapaneseTVadvertisements.Thisstudyfoundthat

Japaneseadvertisementsusedsignificantlymoresoftsellappealsandthat

Americanadvertisementstendedtohavesignificantlymorehardsellappeals.

商 学 討 究 第50巻 第1号

theirculture.Theywillhowever,noticewhenadvertisingisusingthemes anddepictionsofhumanrelationshipsthatruncountertothecentralvalues ofthecultureoftheconsumer.

Aninterestingfindingisthestrongroledifferentiationbetweenmen andwomeninJapaneseadvertising.DeMooij(1998)hassuggestedthat strongroledifferentiationbetweenmenandwomenisrelatedtotheextent towhichacultureembracesmasculinevalues.Hofstede's(1984,1991)cross‑

culturalresearchconcerningwork‑relatedvaluesfbundthatJapanhadthe highestscoreonthemasculinitydimensionofallthecountriessurveyed.It willbeinterestingtoempiricallyvalidatetherelationshipbetweenacoun‑

try'sscoreon且ofstede'smasculinitydimensionandthedepictionofgender rolesinadvertising.

4

Limitations

Anumberoflimitationsconcerningempiricaladvertisingstudiesthatin‑

cludeJapanmustbepointedout.

Firstly,morethanhalfofcomparativeadvertisingstudies(alsothose thatcoverJapan)tendtousemagazineadvertisingassampleforthestudy.

FewerempiricalstudiesfocusonTVadvertising(cf.SamieeandJeong, 1994).

Secondly,comparisonstendtobealmostexclusivelymadewithUSTV advertisingbyAmericanresearchers,orresearchersthathavereceived theiracademictraining(orpartofit)intheUS.

Thirdly,asaresultofthesecondpoint,advertisingtypologiesofcrea‑

tivestrategy,criteriaforcontentanalysis,andotherconceptsusedinempirical

studiestendtobedevelopedintheUSandarenotnecessarilyapprqpriate fbrapplicationtonon‑USadvertising(cfRamaprasadandHasegawa,1992).

Manystudiestendtofocusontheinfbrmationcontentofadvertising,since thisisconsideredoneofthemostimportantcriteriaforadvertisinginthe US.ThenatureandfunctionofadvertisingasseenappropriateintheUS tendstobiasthewayresearchersapproachnon‑USadvertisingaswell.In theUSeffectiveadvertisingisconsideredtobei耳fbrmativeandpersuasive, whereasthisisnotnecessarilythecaseinothercultures(deMooij,1998).

Thisiswhymanyofthestudiesincross‑culturaladvertisingresearch whichusecontentanalysiscompareinf6rmationcontentinadvertising amongcountries12).Inordertooperationalizethedistinctionbetween informativeandnon‑informativethetypologydevelopedbyResnikand Stern(1977)oranadaptationofthistypologyisutilized.Thistypologyis basedontheassumptionthatpeoplemakerationaldecisionswhenbuying, whichisatheoryofhowadvertisingworksthathasoriginatedintheUS.It doesnotaccountforthefactthatmanybuyingdecisionsareaffect‑based ratherthancognitive(deMooij,1998).Anadditionalproblemisthatwhatis informationalforconsumersofoneculturemaynotbeforconsumers噛of anotherculture13)ormaynotbenecessarilydeemedasrelevant(Linand Salwen,1995).

Thisf6cusoninfbrmationcontentinadvertisingfailstoaccountfbr

12) 13)

E.g.,Maddeneta1.1986;Hongetal.1987;Mueller1991;NoorAl‑Deenl991;

Zandpouretal.1992;Grahameta1.1993;LinandSalwen1995.

AstudybyChan(1996)foundthat8.6percentoftheHongKongChinese

respondentsperceivedanobjectivelyclassifiedemotional(i.e.,notinformative)

commercialtobe"informative",suggestingthattheResnikandStern(1977)

typologyofinformationcontentdoesnotcoverothertypesofinformationsuch

asindirectvisualcueswhichmaybeinterpretedasinfbrmativebypeople

fromahigh‑contextculture(foradefinitionofthistermseeelsewhereinthis

paper)likeHongKong.

otheraspectsofmessageswhichmaygoundetectedonbasisoftheResnik andSterntypologyandwhichmaybemoreimportantinexplaininghow

advertisingworksinotherculturesbutperhapsalsointheUSitse1五 ・

Topicsforfurtherresearch

Whatisneededismorecross‑culturaladvertisingresearchthat comparesJapaneseadvertisingwithadvertisingofcountriesotherthanthe US.Thiswillresultinamorecompleteunderstandingofthecharacteristics ofJapaneseadvertisingaswellasadvertisinginothercountries.

Thisreviewdoesnotclaimtobeexhaustiveandhasnotincluded empiricalstudiespublishedinJapanese14).AsfarastheEnglish‑1anguage literatureonJapaneseadvertisingisconcernedhowever,wesuggestitis timetostop̀benchmarking'alladvertisingonAmericanadvertisingandto includeadvertisingfrommultiplecountriesinempiricalstudies.Thereis

alsoaneedfortheoriesofadvertisingthatwouldbetterfitdifferentcultural realities.

Theoriesofadvertisingbasedonlikeability,topicality,andentertain‑

mentconstructswouldseemtofitadvertisinginAsianandotherhigh‑

contextculturesbetterthantheoriesofadvertisingbasedonthelow‑context constructsofinfbrmativenessandpersuasiveness.Thisalsgimpliesthat measurementsfbrcontentanalyticalstudiesotherthaninformationcontent wouldbeappropriate.Paststudiesfocussingonculturalthemes,depictions ofhumanrelationships,andgenderrolesinadvertisingareexamplesof otherpossibleresearchapProaches.

14)Twomulti‑countrystudiescomparingTVadvertisingbyYamaki(1990,

1996b)exist,butthesedonotmentionrellabilityandstatisticalsignificance

dataandwerethereforenotincludedinourreview.

CharacteristicsofJapaneseTVadvertising

References

Asahina,Tomohiko(1997).Tarento‑kokokuwakonyunimusubitsukuka?[lsthere aIinkbetweencelebrityadvertisingandsales?lBrain,V∂1.3Z4,30‑34.

Belk,RussellW.,andWendyJ.Bryce(1986),"MaterialismandIndividualDetermin‑

isminU.S.andJapanesePrintandTelevisionAdvertising,"inAdvancesi〃

Consu〃zer1〜esearchVolX皿RichardLutz,'ed.,'Provo,UT:Associationfor ConsumerResearch,568‑572.

BusinessJournal,The(1992)"AsianAdvertisersHelpsLocalFirmsEnterJapanese Market,"SanJose,October26.

Dehtsu(1998).ノ 砂an1998MarketingandAdvertising.yearbook.Tokyo:DentsuInc.

DiBenedetto,C.Anthony,MarikoTamate,andRalanChandran,(1992)"Developing

CreativeStrategyfortheJapaneseMarketplace."ノ ∂arnalcゾ.4dvertising1〜 θ一

search,32,1:39‑48

DictionaryofAdvertising,The(1986》.NTCBusinessBooks:LincolnwoodIllinois.

EastAsianExecutiveReports(1996)"AdvertisinginJapan:Tai正oringthemessage aswellastheproduct,"Washington,February15.

Economist,The(1993a)"Japaneseadvertising:Don'tknock",London,June26.

Economist,The,(1993b)"TheenigmaofJaparieseadvertising",London,August14 Fannin,Brian(1996)"TheAmericans'commercialappeal:U.S.celebritiesomni‑

presentinJapaneseads",WashingtonTimes,2ndedition,WashingtonD.C., April12.

Fields,George(1989a).The/tZpaneseMarketCulture,Secondedition,Tokio:The JapanTimes,Ltd.

Fields,George,(1989b),"FulfillinganEasternFantasy‑HowWesternstarsfrom BronsontoMcEnroeenchantJapaneseviewersandmoveproduct,"・4dvertis‑

ing・4ge,May8.

Hall,EdwardT.,(1976)BのyondCulture.NewYork:AnchorBooks/Doubleday.

Hofstede,Geert(1984),Cultare'sConsequences:InternationalDifferencesinVVork‑

Relatedレ 召lues.Abridgededition.NewburyPark:SagePublications.

Hofstede,Geert(1991).CulturesandOrganizations.London:McGraw‑Hill.

Imanishi,Tetsunosuke(1994).Nihontekiburando‑maketingunoyukosei.[Theeffec‑

tivenessofJapanese‑stylebrandmarketing.】Brain,V∂1.34,1ヱ,75‑80.

Johansson,JohnyK。(1994),"TheSenseof̀Nonsense':JapaneseAdvertising",ノbur‑

〃alofAdvertising,23,1,March.

Johansson,JohnyK.,alldIkujiroNonaka.(1996)1〜elentless‑Theノ 砂 伽 εεθVaay6ゾ

Marketing.NewYork:HarperCollins.

Kaibara,Yukio(1975).CMwotsukuru【Creatingcommercials】.Tokyo:DentsuInc.

Kilburn,David(1987a)"ComparisonadsmakefirstflightinJapan,".4dvertising.4ge, June8.

Kilburn,David(1987b)"Japan'ssunrises‑Emotiona正adsgainglobalsupPortas JapaneseavoidWesternization,"∠4dvertising∠4ge,August3.

Lin,CarolynA.(1993)"CulturalDifferencesinMessageStrategies:AComparison BetweenAmericanandJapaneseTVCommercials,"ノournal6ゾAdvertising I〜esearch,33,5:40‑48.

Lin,CarolynA.,andMichaelB.Salwen(1995),"ProductInformationStrategiesof AmericanandJapaneseTelevisionAdvertisements,"乃nternational∫ournalげ ノ1dvertising,14,1:55‑64.

MatsuiMutsumi(1996)Hitto‑CM/wadaiCMnbhyogen‑bunseki.Hitomomonomo kawattaga,kokokuwakawattaka.[Analysisofcreativefeaturesofhitcom‑

mercialsandmuchtalked‑aboutcommercials.Peopleandproductshave changed,butwhataboutadvertising?lBrain,V∂1.36,3,16‑26.

Matsuoka,Shigeo(1996).Sabetsukanokyoso‑senryakutoshitenomaketingu‑

komyunikeshon.[Marketingcommunicationasa・competitvedif[erentiation strategy.]Brai〃,Vol.36,3,52‑55.

Miracle,GordonE.(1987),"Feel‑Do‑Learn:AnAlternativeSequenceUnderlying JapaneseConsumerResponsetoTelevisionCommercials",inTheProceedings

oftheヱ987ConferenceoftheA〃zerica〃 ノ1cade〃zッofAdvertising,ed.Feasley, F.G.38‑45

Miracle,GordonE,CharlesR.Taylor,andKyuYeolChang(1992),"Cultureand AdvertisingExecutions:AComparisonofSelectedCharacteristicsofJapanese

andUSTelevisibnCommercials,"ノ'ournaloflnternationalConsumerMarketin .9,

4,4:89‑113.

Moeran,Brian(1996》,Aノ 砂anese/4dvertising.4gency・AnAnthroPologッofMediaand Markets,Honolulu:UniVersityofHawai'iPress

Mooij,MariekeK.de(1998),GlobalMarketingand.4dvertising‑Understanding●Cultural Paradoxes.SagePublications,USA

Mueller,Barbara(1987),Reflectionsofculture:AnanalysisofJapaneseandAmer‑

icanadvertisingapPeals,"ノbz〃nal6ゾ ノldvertising1〜esearch,27,3:51‑59.

Mueller,Barbara(1992),"Standardizationvs.Specialization:AnExaminationof

WesternizationinJapaneseAdvertising,"JournalofAdvertising1〜eseaグc .h,32,

1:15‑24.

Nariu,Tatsuhiko,andJulieYamamoto(1994).KokokunoNichiBei‑hikaku.[Acom‑

parisonofJapaneseandAmericanadvertising.}Nan2ankeiei‑kenkNu[Nanzan

Busines6Research】,Vol9,2,623‑639.

Nishimura,Goshu(1991).NihonnoCMwananinikokenshiteirunoka.[Whatare Japaneseadvertisementscontributingto?]Brain,Vol.31,10,90‑96.

Nomura,Masaki(1997).TarentoCMzensei‑jidaiレSonomittsunomiryokutoyottsu nofuan,[Thegoldenageofcelebrityadvertising1Threeofitsadvantagesand Courofitsdisa(ユvantages・ 】Brain,Vol・3Z4,14‑20・

Ramaprasad,Jyotika,andKazumiHasegawa(1992),"CreativeStrategiesinAmer‑

icanandJapaneseTVCommercials:AComparison."ノburnalofAdvertising J〜esearch,32,1:59‑67.

Sato,Kenji(1997).Ima,nazetarento‑kokokunanoka.【Whyistheresomuch celebrityadvertisingnow?]Brain,Vol.3Z4,21‑25.

Sei,Keiko(1990),"JapaneseCM‑Amirrorforthe90's,"Kyoto/burnal,Nol5,Sum‑

mer,31‑40.

Sengupta,Subir(1995),"TheInfluenceofCultureonPortrayalsofWomeninTele‑

visionCom血ercials:AComparisonBetweentheUnitedStatesandJapan,"

International/burnal6し ヂ/ldvertising,14,4:314‑333.

Tanaka,Hiroshi'(1993)."BrandinginJapan."inBrandEqailyand/ldvertising:

Advertising'sRoleinBuildingSt.rongBrands.Aaker,DavidA.andAlexander L.Biel,eds.Hillsdale,HJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.

Watanabe,Hisanori(1997),Tarentoshikonosei‑nendaibetsuhenkatoshohinzo‑

kusei[Productattributesandchangesincelebritypreferencesbygenderand generation】Brain,Vol.3Z4,26‑29.

Yamaguchi,Mari(1997),"Second‑JobStars:someofAmerica'sbiggestcelebrities docommercialsinJapan,assuredU.S.won'tseethem,"OrangeCountyReg‑

ister,morningedition,SantaAna,July29.

Yamaki,Toshio(1990).KokokukokusaihikakutogurObarusenryaku.[lnternational comparisonofadvertisingandglobalstrategies】.Tokyo:SannoDaigaku Shuppan‑bu.

Yamaki,Toshio(1996a》.Towarerukokokunojohokachi:kajo‑johojidainokokoku koka.ITheneedforinformationvalueinadvertising:Advertisingeffectinan eraofcommunicationoverload.]Brain,Vol.36,3,43‑47.

Yamaki,Toshio(1996b).Hikaku‑SekainoterebiCM.[ComparisonofworldTV advertising.]Tokyo:Nikkeikokokukenkyujo.