Addressing the Under‑Representation of Women in Politics : Japan's Conversations about Gender Quotas
著者名(英) Emma Dalton
journal or
publication title
The Bulletin of the Research Institute for Japanese Studies, Kanda University of
International Studies
volume 6
page range (31)‑(58)
year 2014‑06‑30
URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1092/00001099/
EmmaDal t on
Abst r act :Women・ sgr oupsi nJ apanhavebeenl obbyi ngpol i t i calaut hor - i t i esf orovert went yyear st oi mpl ementgenderquot asf ort hepur poseof i ncr easi ngt henumberofwomenel ect edt opol i t i calof f i ce.Despi t et hi s act i vi sm,t heyhavehadl i mi t edsuccessi ni nf l uenci ngpol i t i calpar t i es.
Si nce2010,however ,t hecampai gnhasbegunt oswel lwi t ht hesuppor t ofani ncr easi ngnumberofdomest i cwomen・ sgr oups.Thei nt er nat i onal f emi ni stcommuni t yhasal sopl acedpr essur eonJ apant oi mpl ement quot asandt ar get si nawi der angeofar easandaut hor i t i eshaveost ensi bl y begunt oconsi derquot asand・ posi t i veact i on・asamet hodofaddr essi ng t hegenderi mbal ancei npar l i ament ar ypol i t i cs.Thi spaperconsi der st hi s pr ocessi nt hecont extoft wodevel opment s.Thef i r stdevel opmenti st he expansi onandext ensi onofgenderequi t ypol i t i csi nJ apansi ncet he i mpl ement at i onoft heBasi cLawf oraGender - EqualSoci et yi n1999, andt heseconddevel opmenti si ncr easedpr essur ef r omt hei nt er nat i onal communi t yi nt hef or mofUni t edNat i onsCEDAW r epor t sandat r end i nt headopt i onofel ect or algenderquot asar oundt hewor l dsi ncet he Uni t edNat i onsFour t hWor l dConf er enceonWomeni n1995.
Keywor ds:pol i t i cs,genderequal i t y,genderquot a,women・ sgr oups, posi t i veact i on
Ther at eoff emal epol i t i calr epr esent at i oni nJ apani st hel owest amongstOECD count r i es.Af t ert he2012gener alel ect i on,t he per cent ageofwomeni nt heDi etst oodat appr oxi mat el y12per - cent( HouseofCounci l l or swebsi t e;HouseofRepr esent at i ves websi t e) .Thi sr epr esent edadr opi nnumberofwomeni nt he Di et ,andi mmedi at el yaf t ert he2012LowerHouseel ect i on,a pl ummett oanumberevensmal l ert hant henumberel ect edat t hef i r stpost - warLowerHouseel ect i onwhenwomenf i r str an f orof f i cei n1946.
1Thi si sast ar t l i ngst at i st i c,butbecomeseven
ofWomeni nPol i t i cs:Japan・ s
Conver sat i onsaboutGenderQuot as
mor edi f f i cul tt oj ust i f ywhenconsi der i ngt heexpansi vesetof pol i ci esandl egi sl at i onputi npl acebyt heJ apanesegover nment si ncet he1990si npur sui tofa・ gender - equalsoci et y・( danj oky ・d・
s ankakus hakai ) .Ther el at i vescar ci t yofwomeni npol i t i cswoul d appeart obeast ubbor npr obl em t hatdecadesofgender - equi t y r el at edpol i cyhavef ai l edt ocor r ect .
Accor di ngt osomewomen・ sgr oupsi nJ apan,suchast he Al l i anceofFemi ni stRepr esent at i vesandWINWIN,t heanswer t ot hi spr obl emi sobvi ous:t hei nt r oduct i onofgenderquot as.In t hi spaperIexami neof f i ci alandact i vi stdi scussi onsaboutgender quot asf ort hepur poseofi ncr easi ngt henumberofwomen el ect edt oof f i ce.・ Posi t i veact i on・ ,suchasnumer i calt ar get st oi n- cr easet henumberofwomeni ndeci si on- maki ngr ol eshasst r at - egi cal l ybeenadopt edi nanumberofi ndust r i esi nJ apani nr ecent year s.Thi shasmost l ybeeni nr esponset ot heBasi cPl anf ora Gender - EqualSoci et y,f i r sti ssuedi n2000.Posi t i veact i onf ort he pur poseofi ncr easi ngt henumberofwomeni npol i t i cs,however , hasnotbeeni mpl ement edatanyl evel .
２Never t hel ess,i nl i ghtof of f i ci aldocument s,suchast heThi r dBasi cPl anf oraGender - EqualSoci et y( 2010)andt he2011Whi t ePaperonaGender - EqualSoci et y,i twoul dappeart hatJ apaneseaut hor i t i eshave r ecent l ybegunt aki ngani nt er esti ndi scussi ngt hepossi bi l i t yof cr eat i ngquot asf orwomeni npol i t i cs.Thi spaperi sbasedon
１
Int he2012LowerHouseel ect i on,38womenwer eel ect edt ot heLowerHouse, f ewert hant he39el ect edi n1946.Ther ear ecur r ent l y39womeni nt heLowerHouse becauseSuzukiTakakowasel ect edi nMay2013,af t eri ncumbentIshi kawaTomohi r o r esi gned.
２
‘Posi t i veact i on・r ef er st owhati sknowni nt heUni t edSt at esandAust r al i anas
af f i r mat i veact i on.Posi t i veact i oni st het er m usedbyof f i ci alUni t edNat i onsdocu-
ment sandal soof f i ci alEngl i sht r ansl at i onsofJ apanesepol i cydocument s,soi st he
t er mIusei nt hi sar t i cl e.TheJ apaneseequi val enti ss e kky okut e kikai ze ns oc hi .Of t eni t
i sal sosi mpl yt r ansl i t er at edaspoj i t i buakus hon.
cont entanal ysi sofpol i cydocument s,dat agai nedf r omi nt er vi ews wi t hwomenf r om t heLi ber alDemocr at i cPar t ybet ween2007 and2008andwi t hr epr esent at i vesofdomest i cwomen・ sgr oups bet ween2008and2013,andi nf or mat i ongl eanedf r om par t i ci - pantobser vat i onat2013meet i ngsoft heAl l i anceofFemi ni st Repr esent at i ves.Int hi sar t i cl eIanal yser ecentof f i ci aldi scour ses sur r oundi nggenderquot asandposi t i veact i onf orwomeni n pol i t i csi nt hecont extofpr essur ef r om t wodi f f er entar eas:t he domest i cwomen・ smovementf orgenderquot asandi nt er nat i onal f emi ni sm,i nt hef or moft heUni t edNat i onsConvent i onont he El i mi nat i onofAl lFor msofDi scr i mi nat i onAgai nstWomen ( CEDAW) .Tobegi nwi t h,i ti si mpor t antt ounder st andt heback- dr opagai nstwhi cht hesedi scussi onsandcampai gnsaboutquot as ar et aki ngpl ace,soIbegi nt hi sar t i cl ewi t hani nt r oduct i ont o J apan・ sof f i ci alpur sui tofa・ gender - equalsoci et y・ .
Thepur sui tofa・ gender - equalsoci et y・
In1999t heBasi cLaw f oraGender - EqualSoci et y( her eaf t er Basi cLaw)wasenact edandi n2000t heBasi cPl anf oraGender - EqualSoci et y( her eaf t erBasi cPl an)wasi mpl ement ed.Theset wo maj ori ni t i at i veswer ei ndi cat i veofagener ali ncr easei ngover n- mentpol i ci esandt ar get ssetoutsi ncet he1990si nt hepur sui t ofa・ gender - equalsoci et y・( Chan- Ti ber ghi en2004;Gel b2003) . Thesepol i ci esi ncl udef ami l y- f r i endl yempl oymentpol i ci es,an i ncr easei nchi l dcar ef aci l i t i es( Gel b2003,p.116)andexpansi on ofchi l dcar eal l owances( Suzuki2007,p.9)( t heAngelPl ans) ;t he Domest i cVi ol enceLaw( 2001) ;campai gnst o・ r ai seawar eness・
aboutt hegender eddi vi si onofl abourathomeandencour age
ment ot akepar ent all eave( Ishi i - Kunt z2003,p.20) ,andi nmor e
r ecentyear s,t ar get st oi ncr easet henumberofwomeni nde-
ci si on- maki ngr ol esi nal lsect or sofsoci et y.
The1999Basi cLawwast hecul mi nat i onofyear sofconsul - t at i onbet weenacademi cs,busi nesspeopl e,bur eaucr at sandpol i - t i ci ans.Itwassi gni f i canti nt hati tsi gnal l edanew er ai nt he of f i ci alpur sui tofgenderequal i t y.Thi si snott osayi twasanew devel opmentf ort hegover nmentt oact i vel ypur suegenderequal i - t y.Suchi ni t i at i vesbyt heJ apanesegover nmentar eacont i nuat i on andi nt ensi f i cat i onofent husi asmf orgenderequal i t ysi nceJ apan becameanact i vepar t i ci panti nt heUni t edNat i onsDecadef or Women,whi chst ar t edi n1975att heWor l dConf er encef or Womeni nMexi coCi t y.Dur i ngt hi sdecade,publ i cf undi ngwas spentt oest abl i shwomen・ scent r esal loverJ apanf ort hepur pose ofpr ovi di ngspacesandr esour cesf oradul teducat i on,conf er - encesandcommuni t ygr oupmeet i ngs( Macki e2003,p.179) .In t er msofspeci f i cst at eact i ons,i n1975t heJ apanesegover nment est abl i shedt heHeadquar t er sf ort hePl anni ngandPr omot i onof Pol i ci esRel at edt oWomen( undert hePr i meMi ni st er ) ;i n1977 t heNat i onalPl anofAct i onwasest abl i shedandi n1987t heNew Nat i onalPl anofAct i onTowar dt heYear2000wasest abl i shed ( Mi ni st r yofFor ei gnAf f ai r s) .Si gni f i cant l y,J apansi gnedt he Convent i onont heEl i mi nat i onofAl lFor msofDi scr i mi nat i on Agai nstWomen( CEDAW)i n1980,andi nt hef ol l owi ngf i ve year sr evi sedsever alpol i ci esi nor dersot hatt heconvent i on coul dber at i f i ed.Thecr eat i onofanequalempl oymentoppor - t uni t yl awwasoneoft her equi r ement sf orJ apan・ sr at i f i cat i onof CEDAW.Soi n1985,t heJ apanesegover nmentenact edt he EqualEmpl oymentLaw.Thi sl awhasbeenr evi sedt wi ce- f i r sti n 1999andt henagai ni n2007.
The1999Basi cLaw i ssi gni f i cantbecauseoft hedomest i c
soci o- demogr aphi ccont extwi t hi nwhi chi temer ged.Oneoft he
mai ni mpet usesoft hei nt ensi f i cat i onofgenderequi t ypol i ci es si ncet he1990si sof f i ci alconcer novert hedecl i ni ngf er t i l i t yr at e andagi ngsoci et y.In1989t hef er t i l i t yr at ei nJ apandr oppedt o 1. 57,l owert hant hepr evi ousl owof1. 58i n1966,whencoupl es del i ber at el yavoi dedhavi ngbabi esbecausei twasani nauspi ci ous year( hi noe uma)( Hi r ao,2007,p.53) .Thef er t i l i t yr at econt i nuedt o decl i neandi n2005dr oppedt oi t sl owestl evelof1. 56,wel l bel ow t hepopul at i onr epl acementl eveloft wochi l dr enper woman( Mi ni st r yofHeal t h,LaborandWel f ar e2010) .Inf act ,i n 2005J apanr ecor dedi t sf i r stpopul at i ondecl i nesi ncet heAsi a- Paci f i cWar .Thesest at i st i cswor r yaut hor i t i es,andsomesoci al andacademi ccomment at or s,
３becauseoft heconsequenceson pr oduct i vi t yandt heeconomy.Wi t hanagi ngpopul at i on,anda concomi t antshr i nki ngwor ki ngpopul at i on,t hebur denont he publ i cpur sewi l lgr ow.
Thi s pot ent i al l y devast at i ng soci o- demogr aphi c si t uat i on pr ompt edaut hor i t i est ocont empl at ewhywomenwer enothav- i ngmor echi l dr en.Theansweri scompl i cat ed,butt hei nabi l i t yof woment ocombi newor kwi t hf ami l yemer gedasamaj ori ssue pr event i ngcoupl esf r omhavi ngmor et hanoneort wochi l dr en.
Thesol ut i ont ot hi swoul dappeart obet oenabl ewoment o combi newor kwi t hf ami l y( Inoguchi ,ci t edi nTPL ( Tokyo Pr oj ect sof /by/f orLadi es)2008,pp.16- 18) .Appr oxi mat el y70 per centofwomenl eavet hewor kf or cewhent heyhaveababy.
Mostcanneverr et ur nt oasi mi l arposi t i onorwage( Inoguchi , ci t edi nTPL2008,p.17) .Manywomenar eambi val entabout t hi s- t heyenj oyt hei rcar eer sandwantt ocont i nuewor ki ng,but
３
Forexampl eYamadaMasahi r o,whoi sasoci ol ogi standwi del yr eadaut horof
books,i ncl udi ngt woaboutso- cal l ed・ par asi t esi ngl es・ ,hasal soshownconcer n
( Yamada,2007) .
soci alnor mst hatpr essur ewoment ost aywi t ht hei rchi l dr enf ul l t i meunt i lt heyar eatl eastt hr eeyear sol d( Rosenbl ut h2007,pp.
6- 7)combi nedwi t hal ackofchi l dcar ef aci l i t i esandwi despr ead, deepl yent r enchedwor kpl acecul t ur esandpr act i cesnotcondu- ci vet ohavi ngaf ami l ymaket hedeci si ont ogobackt owor kan ext r emel ydi f f i cul tone.
Whi l eost ensi bl yconcer nedwi t hgenderequal i t y,t heBasi c Lawi st her ef or ebet t eri nt er pr et edast hegover nment ・ sr esponse t ot hedecl i ni ngf er t i l i t yr at e( andaccompanyi ngr api dl yagi ng popul at i on) .TheJ apanesewor di ngi nl egi sl at i oni nf actavoi ds di r ectr ef er encet o・ genderequal i t y・andi nst eadopt sf ordanj o- ky ・d・,whi chl i t er al l ymeansj oi ntcooper at i onbet weenmenand women.Thepr eambl eoft heBasi cLawdoesnotconcealt hef act t hatoneofi t spr i mar ygoal si st ocount ert hedecl i ni ngf er t i l i t y r at e:
[ T] or espondt ot her api dchangesoccur r i ngi nJ apan・ ssoci oeconomi c si t uat i on,suchast het r endt owar df ewerchi l dr en,t heagi ngoft hepopu- l at i on,andt hemat ur at i onofdomest i ceconomi cact i vi t i es,i thasbecome amat t erofur genti mpor t ancet or eal i zeaGender - equalSoci et yi nwhi ch menandwomenr espectt heot her ・ shumanr i ght sandshar et hei rr espon- si bi l i t i es,andever yci t i zeni sabl et of ul l yexer ci set hei ri ndi vi dual i t yand abi l i t i esr egar dl essofgender( GenderEqual i t yBur eauCabi netOf f i ce websi t e,accessed25/11/10) .
Equat i nggenderequal i t ywi t hi mpr ovi ngsoci alcondi t i onssot hat womencanhavemor echi l dr eni spr obl emat i c,andneedst obe i nt er r ogat edf ur t her .Thi si sat askt hati sbeyondt hescopeoft hi s paperandwi l lnotbedeal twi t hher e,butseeSugi mot o( 2010pp.
184- 185)f orf ur t hercr i t i caldi scussi onont hi s.
Whi l ecr eat i ngasoci et ywher ewomencanhavechi l dr enand
wor katt hesamet i meseemst obet hef ocust hathasemer ged
f r om t heBasi cLaw and Basi cPl an,ot hergender - equal i t y
obj ect i vesar eal socl ear l yout l i nedi nt hepol i cy.The1999Basi c Law set soutspeci f i cst r at egi est oachi evegenderequal i t yi n soci et y,i ncl udi ngt ar get st oi ncr easet henumberofwomeni n deci si on- maki ngr ol es.Ar t i cl eEi ghtoft heBasi cLawexpl i ci t l y speci f i est he st at e・ sr esponsi bi l i t y i n i mpl ement i ng ・ pol i ci es r el at edt opr omot i onoff or mat i on[ si c]ofaGender - equalSoci et y ( i ncl udi ngposi t i veact i on) ・( GenderEqual i t yBur eauCabi net Of f i cewebsi t e,accessed25/11/10) .Thel aw al soencour ages busi nessesandl ocalcounci l st oest abl i shgendert ar get si ndeci - si on- maki ngbodi es.TheBasi cPl an,publ i shedi nDecember 2000,set soutact i onst osuppor tt hel aw.Accor di ngt ot he SecondBasi cPl an( 2005) ,i nor dert or ai set henumberofwomen hol di ng・ l eader shi pposi t i ons・t o30per centby2020,・ ・Posi t i ve Act i on・/Tempor ar ySpeci alMeasur es・andot herappr oacheswi l l bepr omot ed・( GenderEqual i t yBur eau2007,p.27) .It emThr ee oft heBasi cPl an,whi chi sconcer nedwi t h・ equaloppor t uni t i es andt r eat mentbet weenwomenandmeni nt hef i el dofempl oy ment ・ ,st at est hat・ t her at i oofcompani esengagedi nposi t i ve act i onwi l lber ai sedt o40per centbyFi scalYear2009( 29. 5per - centi n2003) ・( GenderEqual i t yBur eau2007,p.20) .Itwoul dap- peart her ef or e,t hatof f i ci aldi scour sesur r oundi ngt heBasi cPl an suppor t st hear gumentf ort henecessi t yofposi t i veact i ont oi n- cr easewomen・ spar t i ci pat i on i n publ i cposi t i onsofpower . Never t hel ess,t hepl edgesoft ar get ssetouti nt hepl anar equi t e vague.Iti sdi f f i cul tt of i ndment i onofconcr et est epsi npl acet o cr eat eorenf or cei nst i t ut i onst ocr eat et hoset ar get s.
Theseexhor t at i onst oi mpl ementposi t i veact i onar ecer t ai nl y vagueandl ackenf or ci ngmeasur es- t hey・ encour age・or・ hope・
r at hert hanst i pul at e- butsomecompani esaswel lasl ocalmuni ci -
pal i t i eshaveest abl i shedt ar get sf orwomenasar esul toft heBasi c
Pl an( Gel b2003,p.125) .Byf i scal2003,appr oxi mat el y30per - centofal lbusi nessesi nJ apanhadadopt edposi t i veact i onmeas- ur est o i ncr ease t he numberoff emal e empl oyees.Lar ge compani eswer emor el i kel yt hansmal l ercompani est odoso ( Suzuki2007,p.22) .Thepubl i cser vi ceanduni ver si t i eshaveal so t akenmeasur es.In2000,TheJ apanAssoci at i onofNat i onal Uni ver si t i esannouncedat ar gett oi ncr easet henumberoff ul l - t i mef emal et eacher st o20per centby2010.Thi swasover l yam- bi t i ousandi n2010,t henumberhadonl yr eached12. 7per cent , pr ompt i ngar evi si onoft het ar gett oatl east17per centby2015.
In2001,t heNat i onalPer sonnelAut hor i t yl ai ddownmeasur est o i ncr easef emal epubl i cser vant s.Iti nst r uct edt hegover nment mi ni st r i est o・ syst emat i cal l yi ncr ease・t henumberofwomenwho passedt hepubl i cser vi ceexamandt oest abl i shnumer i calt ar get s and・ enactconcr et est eps・t or eacht hoset ar get s( Osawa2001,p.
82) .
Despi t et hef actt heor i gi nalandsecondBasi cPl anencour aged
t hepr i vat esect orandt hebur eaucr acyt oconsi derposi t i veact i on
f ort hepur poseofi ncr easi ngt henumberofwomeni ndeci si on-
maki ngr ol es,t her ewasnosuchendor sementofposi t i veact i on
t oi ncr easet henumberofwomeni npol i t i cs.Ther ear est i l lno
measur esi npl aceonanat i onall evelt oi ncr easewomeni nt he
Di etandunt i lr ecent l yt her ehadbeenvi r t ual l ynodi scussi onof
numer i calt ar get sorel ect or alquot asi npol i t i cs.Speci f i cr ecom-
mendat i onsf orquot ast oi ncr easet henumberofwomenel ect ed
t oof f i ceappear edi nt heThi r dBasi cPl anf oraGender - Equal
Soci et y,publ i shedi n2010.Thet i mi ngoft hi scanbeunder st ood
whenseeni nt hecont extoft wof act or s:i nt er nat i onalf emi ni st
di scour ses・speci f i cal l y,t he2009Uni t edNat i onsConcl udi ng
Obser vat i onsoft heCommi t t eeont heEl i mi nat i onofDi scr i mi -
nat i onAgai nstWomen- anddomest i cwomen・ sgr oupsi nJ apan.
TheUNCEDAW r epor t ,f ort hef i r stt i me,madeexpl i ci tr ef er - encet ot heunder - r epr esent at i onofwomeni npol i t i csandr ec- ommendedt hei mpl ement at i onofquot as( Uni t edNat i ons2009, p. 9) .Iwi l ldi scusst hi sl at er ,butf i r stIwantt oconsi dert heact i v- i t i esofdomest i cwomen・ sgr oupst hathave,f oral ongt i me,been cal l i ngonpol i t i calpar t i est oaddr esst hegenderi mbal ancei n pol i t i csby,amongot hermet hods( suchaschangi ngt heel ect or al syst em) ,
４i mpl ement i nggenderquot as.Tr aci ngt heact i vi t i esof t hesewomen・ sgr oupswi l lshedl i ghtont heki ndsofdomest i c pr essur esJ apaneseaut hor i t i eshavef acedwi t hr egar dst ot hi s i ssue,andal soshowhowaut hor i t i eshaver esponded.
Domest i ccampai gnf orgenderquot as
TheAl l i anceofFemi ni stRepr esent at i ves( AFER orZe nkoku Fe mi ni s ut oGi i nRe nme i )hasbeenl obbyi ngt hegover nmentf ort wo decadest oi mpl ementoratl eastconsi deri mpl ement i nggender quot asf ort hepur poseofi ncr easi ngt henumberofwomen el ect edt oof f i ce.Foundedi n1992,AFERi sagr oupofel ect ed member sofpar l i ament( bot hl ocalandnat i onal )whouni t eon t hebasi sofaf emi ni stbel i eft hatmor ewomeni npol i t i csi si m- por t antf orwomenandsoci et yi ngener al .Ont hef r ontof AFER・ smont hl ynewsl et t eri sapar agr apht hatencapsul at est he or gani sat i on・ set hos.
AFER i st heor ganf ort heAl l i anceofFemi ni stRepr esent at i ves,an
４
Pr opor t i onalr epr esent at i onel ect or alsyst emsar ewi del yunder st oodt obeeasi erf or
womenandot hermi nor i t i est osucceedi n.Thesi ngl emembersyst emi nJ apanf avour s
i ncumbent sandt hosewi t hj i ban( l ocalbase) ,kaban( f unds)andkanban( apubl i ci t y
machi ne) .Thesecr eat et hepi pel i net opol i t i calpowerf r om whi chwomenar el ar gel y
excl uded.
act i vi stor gani sat i ont hatsuppor t spol i t i csr oot edi nf emi ni sm andci vi c movement s.Thegoalofourmovementi st or ai set heper cent ageof women i n l egi sl at i veassembl i esand publ i cdeci si on- maki ngbodi es nat i onwi det o40per centandcr eat easoci et ywher ewomen・ svoi cesar e r ef l ect edi npol i t i cs.Webel i evesuchasoci et ywi l lbeamat ur esoci et y wher et hehandi capped,chi l dr enandt heel der l ywi l lnotbedi sadvant aged ( Tokushu2013,p. 1)
AFERhasappr oxi mat el y200member s.Member shi pi sopent o menandwomen,butt hevastmaj or i t yofi t smember sar e women.Foundi ngmemberMi t suiMar i kowasamemberoft he Tokyomet r opol i t ancounci landJ apanSoci al i stPar t y.Shel ef tt he par t yandqui tt hecounci li n1993,ci t i ngsexualhar assmentand di sappoi nt mentt hatt hepar t ydi dnotval uewomen・ si nput( Kaya 1995,p.126) .Shel at erbecameamemberoft heDemocr at i c Par t yofJ apan.
AFER・ sf undament aldr i vi ngbel i efi st hatmor ewomeni n deci si on- maki ngr ol eswi l lmakeaposi t i vedi f f er encet owomen i nJ apan.Ii nt er vi ewedr epr esent at i veNakamur aMasakoi nApr i l 2012andsheexpl ai nedt omet hatt hegr oup・ sobj ect i vescan besummar i sedi nt ot hr eebr oadgoal s:i ncr easi ngt henumber ofwomeni npol i t i cs,pushi ngf orwomen・ sr i ght sandpur sui ng genderequal i t y.Thegr oupbel i evest hatt hel at t ert wogoal sar e mor el i kel yt obeachi evedi ft hef i r stgoali saccompl i shed( per - sonalcommuni cat i on,Apr i l2012) .Theybel i evet hatel ect or al genderquot asar et hei dealpat ht oachi evi ngt hesegoal s.
AnnePhi l l i ps・t heor yoft he・ pol i t i csofpr esence・( Phi l l i ps
1995)i si nst r uct i vei ni nt er pr et i ngAFER・ sar gument s.Phi l l i ps
ar guest hatal t houghi ncr easi ngt henumberofwomeni nr epr e-
sent at i vepol i t i csmi ghtnot・ makeadi f f er ence・i ti sanenabl i ng
measur ef orpot e nt i alchange.
Changi ngt hegendercomposi t i onofel ect edassembl i esi sl ar gel yan enabl i ngcondi t i on( acr uci al l yi mpor t antone,consi der i ngwhati sdi s abl ed atpr esent )buti tcannotpr esenti t sel fasaguar ant ee.Iti s,i nsomesense, ashoti nt hedar k:f armor el i kel yt or eachi t st ar gett hanwhent hose shoot i ngar epr edomi nant l ymal e,butst i l lopent oal lki ndsofacci dent ( Phi l l i ps1995,p.83)
The・ pol i t i csofpr esence・ar guest hatwomen・ sgr eat erpr esencei n r epr esent at i vepol i t i csi smor el i kel yt ohaveaposi t i veef f ecton women・ si ssuest hanwomen・ sabsence.Thi snot i oni sbasedon anassumpt i ont hatt her ear easetofi ssuest hatcanbedef i ned aswomen・ si ssues.Thesei ssuesdonotnecessar i l yconcer nal l women,andwomenar enotnecessar i l yahomogenousgr oup.
Rat hert hanr el yi ngonassumedsi mi l ar i t i esbet weenal lwomen, t hi snot i onr el i esondi f f er encesbet weenwomenandmenas gr oups.Duet ogender edpat t er nsofsoci al i sat i onwomenand ment endt ohavedi f f er entr ol esi nsoci et yanddi f f er entl i f e pat hs.Di f f er enti ssuest her ef or eaf f ectmenandwomendi f f er - ent l y.Becausewomenar emor el i kel yt hanment obedoi ngdai l y car i ngt asksf orchi l dr en,chi l dcar ecanbeunder st oodasapo- l i t i cali ssuet hathasmor edi r ecti nf l uenceonwomen・ sl i vest han men・ sl i ves.Impr ovi ngl awst opr ot ectwomenf r om domest i c vi ol encei sani ssuet hati sofsi gni f i cancef orbot hwomenand men,butaswomenar emor el i kel yt obevi ct i ms,i ti sofmor e i mmedi at econcer nf orwoment hanmen.Thesear esomeexam- pl esofi ssuest hatwomen,becauseoft hei rposi t i onsi na gender edsoci et y,ar emor el i kel yt hanment obeconcer nedwi t h.
AFERbel i evest hatwomenpol i t i ci ansar emor el i kel yt oacti n t hei nt er est soff ami l i es,communi t i es,chi l dr enandt heel der l y.
Dur i ngt heApr i l2012i nt er vi ew,AFERr epr esent at i veNakamur a
r el at edast or yt hatdemonst r at est hi sbel i ef .Af t ert het r i pl edi sas-
t erofear t hquake,t sunami ,andnucl earr eact ormel t downon
Mar ch11,2011,t hecent r algover nmentwasqui ckt oest abl i sh economi cr evi t al i sat i onpackagesf orFukushi mapr ef ect ur eand i t ssur r oundi ngs.OnMar ch30,al awr egar di ngspeci almeasur es f orr evi t al i si ngandr econst r uct i onf orFukushi mawasi mpl e- ment ed.Nakamur awel comest hi sl awbuti scr i t i calofi t sempha- si sonhel pi ngbusi nessesi nt hear ea.Shesuggest st hati ft her e wer emor ewomenmaki ngdeci si ons,t hef ocuswoul dnotbeon economi cr evi t al i sat i on,butont heenvi r onment ,heal t hoft he sur vi vor sandhowbestt opr ovi depr act i calassi st ancef ort hesur - vi vor s.Ont hegr oundl evel ,shet ol dmet hatt het empor ar yshel - t er swer ei nadequat el yequi ppedwi t hchanger ooms.Theel der l y andbabi eshadt ohavet hei rnappi eschangedi npubl i c.She bel i evest hatwomenar emor esensi t i vet ot heset ypesoft hi ngs becauseoft hei rsoci alr ol esascar er st of ami l ymember s,par - t i cul ar l yt heel der l yandchi l dr en( per sonalcommuni cat i on,Apr i l 2012) .
Ofcour senotal lf emal epol i t i ci ansacti nt hei nt er estof
women.Never t hel ess,t hepol i t i csofpr esencehasbeent est edi n
SwedenandEngl andandpr ovent r uei nsomer espect .In
Sweden,Wangner uddi scover edt hatf emal emember soft he
nat i onalassembl yar emor el i kel yt hanmal emember st ogi ve
pr i or i t yt osoci alwel f ar ei ssues( Wangner ud2000,p.85) .Int he
Br i t i shWest mi nst er ,LovenduskiandNor r i s( 2003,p.94)f ound
t hatmenandwomendonothavedi f f er entappr oachest opol i -
ci esl i ket heeconomyorf or ei gndi pl omacy,butwoment end
t oval uegender - equal i t yi ssuesmor e.AFERdoesnotseem t o
endor set hei deat hatanyonewi l lsuf f i cesol ongasshei sa
woman.Att he2013AFERgener almeet i ng,hel di nTokyoon
May25,t hi si deawasvoi cedbysever aldi f f er entwomenatdi f -
f er entt i mest hr oughoutt hemeet i ng.
Thepr opor t i onofwomeni nJ apan・ sDi ethasneversur passed 15percentsoi twoul dbeal mostpoi nt l esst oat t emptt ot estt he pol i t i csofpr esencet oJ apan・ scase.Ther esi mpl yar enotenough womeni nt heDi ett omakeanar gument .Never t hel ess,i ndi vi dual caseswher ef emal epol i t i ci anshavei nt r oducedpol i ci esorbi l l s t hatspeci f i cal l ycat ert owomen・ sneedssuppor tAFER・ scl ai ms.
LDPUpperHousemember ,Ar i mur aHar uko,f orexampl e,i n- t r oducedt he・ mat er ni t ymar k・i ni t i at i vef orpr egnantwomen t r avel l i ngonpubl i ct r anspor t .Pr egnantwomencanobt ai na badget oat t acht ot hei rbagt hatal er t spassenger st ot hei rpr eg- nantst at ussot hataseatwi l lbemadeavai l abl e.Inani nt er vi ew i n December2007,Ar i mur aexpl ai ned t hi si ni t i at i vei n t he cont extoft al ki ngaboutt hei mpor t anceofwomeni nt heDi et .
Forexampl e,asani ndi vi dualDi etmember ,notast heheadoft he women・ sbur eau,Icameupwi t ht hei deaoft hemat er ni t ymar k( shows met hebadge)t obeusednat i on- wi debywomenwi t hbabi esi nt hei rt um- mi es,womenwhoar eeager l yawai t i ngt hebi r t hoft hei rchi l d.Mysugges- t i onwasaccept edandi twasputi nt opr act i ce.It ooamamot her( shows meaphot oofherchi l dwi t hwhomshei spi ct ur edonsomeofherpr o- mot i onalpamphl et s) ,andt hemostdi f f i cul tt i meofapr egnancyi snot whenyouar eshowi ngbuti nyourf i r stt r i mest er .Iti st het i mewhen peopl ecan・ tt el lt hatyou・ r epr egnant .Mor ni ngsi cknessi ssever eandt he possi bi l i t yofmi scar r i agei sati t shi ghest .Buti nt hi sper i odpr egnant womencan・ tr eal l ysay・ I・ m pr egnant ・ .Theydon・ thavet hecour aget o speakup,dot hey?Soi t ・ st heset i meswhent heycanputt hebadgeon t hei rbagsandi ndoi ngso,uncer emoni ousl ysay,・ Imaynotbeshowi ng, butI・ mpr egnant ,soI・ mt i r ed・ .Imadet hi spr oposalbel i evi ngt hatsoci et y shoul dval uel i f ei nt hi sway.Ther ear eonemi l l i onpr egnantwomeni n J apan.Int hatr espect ,It hi nki t ・ si mpor t antt omakepr oposal sandsug- gest i onsi nt heDi etbasedont heexper i encesofal lt ypesoff eel i ngs,i n- conveni encesandconf usi onst hathappeni nl i f e,andt henactont hose suggest i ons( per sonalcommuni cat i on,December2007) .
Anot her ,andper hapsmor esi gni f i cant ,exampl eoff emal epol i t i -
ci ansact i ngi nt hei nt er estofwomen( andnotonl ypr egnantor
pot ent i al l yr epr oduci ngwomen)wast hei nt r oduct i onoft he
Domest i cVi ol enceLawi n2001( DVB・s hiH・) .
５Thi swasl ar gel y t her esul toff emal el egi sl at or swor ki ngacr osspar t yl i nes.Inpr e- l i mi nar yst udygr oupsest abl i shedaspar toft hepr ocessofcr eat - i ngt hel egi sl at i on,somemal el egi sl at or smadecomment ssuchas,
・ i t ・ snott hatsi gni f i cantapr obl em・ ,orwhenconsi der i nganexi st - i ngant i - domest i cvi ol encel egi sl at i oni nKor ea,・ Kor eanmenmay hi t[ t hei rpar t ner s]butJ apanesemendonotexhi bi t i ngr esi st ance t ot hei nt r oduct i onofsuchal awandapr of oundl ackofunder - st andi ngoft hei ssue( Fukushi ma2004,p.93) .Womenl egi sl at or s wer epar t i cul ar l yi nst r uct i vei nt hei ncl usi onoft her est r ai ni ng or dersyst emi nt heDomest i cVi ol enceLaw.Ini t i al l yf acedwi t h r esi st ancef r om t hosei npower ,acr oss- par t ywomen・ sgr oup i nsi st edoni t si ncl usi onunt i lt heysucceeded( Fukushi ma2004,p.
96) .
Theseexampl essuggestwomenmember soft heDi etcan,and somet i mesdo,acti nt hei nt er est sofwomen.Thi si snotevi dence t hatmor ewomeni nJ apanesepol i t i cswoul ddef i ni t el ymake J apanesewomen・ sl i veseasi er .Iwoul dsuggest ,however ,t hat i nt er pr et i ngNakamur a・ swor ds,andt hewor dsofmanyJ apanese campai gnsf ormor ewomeni npol i t i cs,t hr ought hel ensoft he pol i t i csofpr esenceenabl esanappr eci at i onoft heval ueofsuch ar gument s.Thati s,Ii nt er pr etAFERasar gui ngf orachanceat change.Ther ei smor el i kel i hoodofwomen・ si ssuesbei ngpl aced onandr emai ni ngont hepol i t i calagendai ft her ear ewomencon- t r i but i ngt ot hecr eat i onoft hepol i t i calagenda.
Inr ecentyear s,AFER hasj oi nedhandswi t hWINWIN ( WomenInNewWor l d,Int er nat i onalNet wor k)i ni t scampai gn
５
Thef ul lt i t l eoft hel awi st heLawf ort hePr event i onofSpousalVi ol enceandt he
Pr ot ect i onofVi ct i ms( Hai g ・s hakar anob・r y okunob・s hioy obihi g ai s hanohog ・nikans ur u
h・r i t s u)
f orgenderquot as.WINWINi sawomen・ sor gani sat i onbasedon t heUSEmi l y・ sLi st .Foundedi n1996byAkamat suRy・koand f i veot herwomen,
６WINWINwasi ni t i al l yest abl i shedt opr ovi de f i nanci alsuppor tt of emal eel ect or alcandi dat es.Unl i keEmi l y・ s Li st ,whi chonl ysuppor t sDemocr atcandi dat es,WINWINdoes notl i mi ti t ssuppor tt oapar t i cul arpar t y・ scandi dat es.Rat heri t i nt er vi ewst hecandi dat eanddet er mi neswhet her ,i fel ect ed,she woul dacti nt hei nt er est sofwomen.Si nce2006,WINWINhas st oppedpr ovi di ngf i nanci alsuppor tandi nst eadpr ovi dessuppor t i nt hef or m ofment or i ngandeducat i on( Akamat su2005) .In r ecentyear s,i thast ur nedi t sf ocust ot hegenderquot acampai gn.
In2012i tgat her edappr oxi mat el y25women・ sgr oupsf oracon- cer t edef f or tatpushi ngpol i t i calpar t i est oi mpl ementquot asand cr eat edanew or gani sat i oncal l edTheGr oupf orPur sui nga Quot aSyst em ( Ku・t aSe ioSui s hi nSur uKai ) .Theseor gani sat i ons i ncl udedAFER,TheLeagueofWomenVot er sofJ apan,The J apaneseAssoci at i onofUni ver si t yWomen,andTheWomen・ s Associ at i onf oraBet t erAgi ngSoci et y.InJ ul y,2012,TheGr oup f orPur sui ngaQuot aSyst embegant hei rof f i ci alact i vi t i esbyvi s- i t i ngt heMi ni st erofSt at ef orGenderEqual i t y,Nakagawa Masahar u.Theyt henpai dvi si t st oeachpol i t i calpar t y,ur gi ng t hemt oi mpl ementgenderquot as( Kawahashi2013,p.119) .
Ther ecept i onofwomen・ sgr oupsbypol i t i calaut hor i t yi n
６
Akamat suRy・kowasdi r ect oroft heWomen・ sBur eauwhent heEEOLwascr eat ed
i n1985andakeyf i gur ei nt hedevel opmentandpassageoft hatl aw.Shebeganher
car eeri nt heMi ni st r yofLabori n1953andwasal ong- ser vi ngbur eaucr ati nt hear eas
ofl abourandeducat i onbef or ebecomi ngEducat i onMi ni st eri n1993.Si nce2008she
hasser vedast hechai r per sonf ort heJ apanCommi t t eef orUNICEF.Theot herwomen
whoFor medWINWIN wer eShi nomur aMi t suko,aj our nal i st ;Kawashi maRur i ,t he
di r ect oroft heJ apanSoci et y;Ogawar aAki ko,abusi nessexecut i ve;HayashiYok・,a
l awyer ;andMegur oYor i ko,apr of essorofsoci ol ogyandgenderst udi esatSophi a
Uni ver si t y( Gaunder2011,p.83) .
J apanhast ypi cal l ydependedont hegr oup・ sdemands.Somehave ar guedt hatwomen・ sgr oupsr epr esent i ngconsumer s,mot her s andwi vesar emor el i kel yt obel i st enedt ot hanot her s( Bol i ng 2008) .Inot herwor ds,women・ sgr oupswi t hconser vat i veai msor t hoset hatar ewi l l i ngt obeco- opt edbyconser vat i vef or ces wi t hi nt hegover nmentar ewel comed,whi l ewomen・ sgr oupswi t h r adi caldemandsort hosewhosedemandsr equi r ear edi st r i but i on off undsar enotal l owedt hechancet opar t i ci pat e( Bol i ng2008, pp. 75- 76) .Theexper i enceofAFERt odat esuggest st hi si st he case.Mostpeopl ei nJ apan,evenuni ver si t ypr of essor si nt he humani t i esandsoci alsci ences,l ookatmequi zzi cal l ywhenIt el l t hemIamr esear chi ngt hegenderquot amovementi nJ apan,as t heyhaveneverhear dofgenderquot as.Thel ackofpubl i ccon- sci ousnessaboutt hei ssuei sani ndi cat i onoft heal mosti nsur - mount abl ebar r i er st hegenderquot amovementf acest or ai se awar enessabouti t ,l etal onebegi napubl i corpol i t i calconver - sat i onabouti t .Pol i t i calpar t i es・r esponsest ot hesewomen・ s gr oupsovert heyear shaver angedf r omcompl et edi si nt er est ,t o pol i t eengagementt oent husi asm i nt hecaseoft her ecent l y f or medGr eensJ apan.
Pol i t i calpar t i es・r esponsest ot hequot acampai gn
Thef i r st ,quot asyst emf orapol i t i calpar t ywasi mpl ement edby
t heJ apanNewPar t ywheni tf or medi n1992.Thi spar t yr ul e
mandat edt hatami ni mum of20per centofpar t ymanagement
hadt obewomen( Et ・2007,p. 41) .Si ncet henandunt i lver y
r ecent l y,pol i t i calpar t i eshavebeenappar ent l yuni nt er est edi n
genderquot as.Gr eensJ apani st heonl ypol i t i calpar t yt hathasa
quot ai npl ace.Itst i pul at est hatwomenmustaccountf oratl east
f i f t yper centofal lcandi dat esandpar t yexecut i ve.Somepai dl i p
ser vi cet ot hei deabutdi dl i t t l e,whi l eot her sopenl yopposed t hem.Af t ert henew si ngl e- memberseatel ect or alsyst em was i nt r oducedi n1994,wher ebyi ndi vi dualcandi dat esvi ef oronl y oneseat ,women・ sgr oupswer econcer nedaboutt hepr obabl e negat i vei mpactonwomen・ sr epr esent at i ont hi swoul dhave.The J apanAccount abi l i t yCaucusf ort heBei j i ngConf er ence( anon- gover nment all obbyi nggr oupf or medi n1995af t ert heBei j i ng Conf er ence,her eaf t erJ AC) ,AFERandt heKashi wawomen・ s commi t t eesur veyedeachpol i t i calpar t yi nOct ober1996,pr i ort o t hatyear ・ sLowerHouseel ect i ont oascer t ai nt hei ropi ni onson el ect or alquot asf orwomeni npol i t i cs( Yoshi da1999,p.61) .The LDP・ sr esponsewas・ quot asar er ever sedi scr i mi nat i onsowe won・ ti nt r oducet hem・ .Ot herpol i t i calpar t i es,i ncl udi ngt heDPJ , r espondedt hatt heywer ei nt er est edi n・ pr oact i vel yexpl or i ngt he i dea・ .
J ACsentoutt hesamesur veyi n2007( J AC2007,accessed 9/9/10) .TheLDP・ sr esponsewassyst emat i ci ni t sr ej ect i onof t hei dea.
Ourpar t ysel ect st hebestcandi dat esr egar dl essofsex.Wehavepr o- act i vel yi nt r oducedanopenr ecr ui t mentsyst em,and,aswesel ectcandi - dat esbyt aki ngi nt oaccountt hei rdesi r et or unandt hei rabi l i t y,wear e notconsi der i ngi nt r oduci ngaquot asyst ematt hi spoi nt .
Ther esponsesbyt heot herpar t i est ot hesamesur veysuggest
t hatt heywer ewi l l i ngt oconsi derquot as.Forexampl e,t heDPJ
r espondedt hatt heyar e・ consi der i ngt hepr omot i onofgender
quot ast oi ncr easewomen・ spar t i ci pat i oni n[ t hepar t y・ s]pol i cy
deci si on- maki ng pr ocesses・( J AC 2007,accessed 9/9/10) .
However ,accor di ngt oasur veycar r i edouti n2010byAFER,
t heDPJpar t yst ancei sonet hatnol ongerendor sest hei deaof
quot as.Mor er ecent l y,however ,att heAFERannualmeet i ng, hel di nTokyoi nMay2013,DPJr epr esent at i ve・kawar aMasako wasver yent husi ast i caboutt hepar t yi nt r oduci nggenderquot as, whi l eadmi t t i ngt her ewer enoconcr et est epsi npl acet obegi nt he pr ocess.Inf or mat i onr egar di ngpol i t i calpar t i es・st ancesonquot as i sdi f f i cul tt oobt ai n,andsomewhatcont r adi ct or y,i ndi cat i nga l ackofi nt er esti nt het opi cont hepar tofpol i t i calaut hor i t i es, andal soper hapssuggest i ngt hef ai l ur eofwomen・ sgr oupst o publ i ci set hei ssue.
TheLDPmayof f i ci al l yopposequot asf ort hepur poseof i ncr easi ngt henumberofel ect edwomen,butt hi si snott osay t hatever yonei nt hepar t yagr eeswi t ht hi sof f i ci alst ance.Dat a col l ect edf r om i nt er vi ewswi t hLDPwomenbet ween2007and 2008demonst r at et hatsomewomenar ei nf avourofquot aswhi l e ot her sar enot .Whenaskedf oranopi ni ononwhatmi ghtbea possi bl esol ut i ont ot heunder - r epr esent at i onofwomeni nt he Di et ,UpperHousememberIshi iMi dor ir espondedemphat i cal l y,
・ aquot asyst em・ .Shecont i nued:
So,l et ・ ssay[ t hepopul at i on]i shal fwomenandhal fmen.Soessent i al l y [ t heDi et ]shoul dbehal f/hal faswel l .Itbei nghal f/hal fasanat ur al cour seofevent si si deal ,butwecan・ tr eal l ywai tf ort hat - wai tf orsoci et y t odevel opl i ket hat .SoIt hi nkt hatsomet hi ngl i keapol i cyf orquot asys- t emsi snecessar y( per sonalcommuni cat i on,Mar ch2008) .
Af t eral l ,i tt ookmor et hanf i f t yyear sf ort henumberofwomen i nt heLowerHouset or i seabovet henumberr ecor dedat t hever yf i r sti nt akeofwomeni n1946.Andaf t ert he2012Lower Houseel ect i on,t hepr opor t i onofwomenhasact ual l ydr opped bel owt hepr opor t i onel ect edatt hatver yf i r stel ect i oni n1946.
Ot heri nf or mant sshar edt hi si nf ormant ・ ssent i mentsayi ngt hi ngs
suchas,・ Idon・ tt hi nkf emal er epr esent at i onwi l li ncr easewi t hout somemeasur eofdel i ber at epol i cy- l eavi ngi tt onat ur ei sn・ tr eal l y wor ki ng・( per sonalcommuni cat i on wi t h Tokashi kiNaomi , Oct ober2007) .
Ot herLDPwomen,however ,wer el essopt i mi st i caboutt he possi bi l i t yofquot ast oaddr esst hegenderi mbal ancei nt heDi et . Ar i mur aHar ukoment i onedt hatquot aswoul dber egar dedas
・ r ever sedi scr i mi nat i on・( g y akus abe t s u) .Shewascar ef ul ,however , t ospeci f yt hati ti smenwhoseei tassuch.Never t hel ess,her ar gumentwent ,becausemenr egar di tassuch,i ti snott enabl e, andatanyr at e,i fawomanwasvot edi nbecauseshewas awoman,shewoul dnotbet akenser i ousl y.Quot asyst ems, Ar i mur acl ai med,mi ghtwor ki nt heshor tt er mt oi ncr easef emal e r epr esent at i on,butwi l lnotwor ki nt hel ongt er mt obui l dt r ust i nwomenpol i t i ci ans.Sheaccept edt hi sasar eal i t y,andpar t oft her easont hatposi t i veact i oni snotavi abl eopt i onf or i ncr easedf emal er epr esent at i on( per sonalcommuni cat i on,De- cember2007) .
Somewomendemonst r at edambi val encet owar dst hei deaof
quot assayi ngt heydi dnotr eal l ysuppor tt hem i nt heor ybut
woul dl i ket osees omes or tofmeasur eputi nt opr act i ce.Lower
HousememberNi shi kawaKy・ko,f orexampl e,sai dt hatgender
quot ascamef r om communi sm andwer et her ef or ei ncongr uent
wi t ht heLDP・ sappr oacht ogenderequal i t y,whi chi sbasedon
t hel i ber alunder st andi ngofequal i t yas・ equaloppor t uni t y・ .She
woul dnever t hel ess・ honest l yl i ket oseemor e・oft het act i csused
byf or merpr i memi ni st erKoi zumiJ un・ i chi r ・i nt he2005el ect i on
t oi ncr easet henumberofwomenel ect edt oof f i ce( per sonal
communi cat i on,Febr uar y2008) .In2005,Koi zumipl acedf emal e
candi dat esatt het opoft hepar t yl i st si nt hepr opor t i onal
r epr esent at i ondi st r i ct s,enabl i ngar ecor dnumberofwoment o beel ect edt ot heLowerHouse.Thi swasaf or m ofposi t i ve act i ont hatdemonst r at est heabi l i t yofapol i t i calpar t yt oi ncr ease t henumberofwomenel ect edi fi tsodesi r es( Dal t on,2012) .Thi s t ypeofposi t i veact i oncanbeseenasanappr oachsi t t i ngsome- wher ei nbet weenquot asand・ l eavi ngi tt onat ur e・ .Manywomen el ect edi n2005asar esul toft hi smovel ostt hei rseat si nt he2009 el ect i on,demonst r at i ngt hatsuchmeasur esar eonl yef f ect i vei f i mpl ement edwi t hl ong- t er mvi si onandnecessar ysuppor t .
Pol i t i calpar t i est her ef or edonotpr esentauni t edf r ontont he i deaofquot as.Theendr esul thowever ,i st hatt hosewhoad- vocat equot asar enoti nposi t i onsofpowert odoanyt hi ngabout i t .Thosei nposi t i onsofpowerseemnott opr i or i t i segenderi m- bal ancei npol i t i csasani ssue.Al lpol i t i calpar t i eswer ei nvi t ed t ospeakatt heAFER2013gener almeet i ngaboutt hei rpar t y・ s genderpol i ci esandappr oacht ot hei ssueoff emal epol i t i cal under - r epr esent at i on.TheKomei t o,t heDPJ ,t heSDP,Gr eens J apan,Peopl e・ sLi f ePar t y( Se i kat s unoTo)andYourPar t y( Mi na noTo)sentr epr esent at i ves;t heJ CP,t heTomor r ow Par t yof J apan( Mi r ainoTo)andGr eenWi nd( Mi dor inoKaze )sentapol - ogi esandt heLDPandJ apanRest or at i onPar t ydi dnotr espond atal lt ot hei nvi t at i on.
Never t hel ess,of f i ci aldocument semer gi ngf r om J apan・ sbu- r eaucr acysi nce2009suggestt hatgenderquot asar ebecomi ngan i ssuet hatpol i t i calpar t i eswi l lnotbeabl et oi gnor ef ormuch l onger .
Posi t i veact i ongai nst r act i on
Of f i ci aldocument s,suchast heBasi cPl an,havet ypi cal l ybeen
vagueaboutt heneedt oi mpl ement・ speci almeasur es・t oi ncr ease
t henumberofwomeni ndeci si onmaki ngr ol esandhavemar k- edl yavoi dedment i oni ngt heunder - r epr esent at i onofwomeni n pol i t i cs.Recent l y,however ,t her eappear st obeasl i ghtshi f t t owar dsposi t i veact i oni nawi der angeofar easf ort hepur pose ofi ncr easi ngt henumberofwomeni ndeci si on- maki ngr ol es, i ncl udi ngpol i t i cs.J apan・ s2011Whi t ePaperonaGender - Equal Soci et yandt heThi r dBasi cPl an( 2010)i ncl udecl ausest hat appealt opol i t i calpar t i est oi mpl ementquot asf ort hepur poseof i ncr easi ngt henumberofwomen.Thi swasi nr esponset ot he 2009Uni t ed Nat i ons・CEDAW r epor ton J apan・ spr ogr ess t owar dsagender - equalsoci et y.CEDAW Concl udi ngComment s t hatJ apan・ spur sui tofgenderequal i t yhadbeeni nadequat e, i ncl udi ngt hescar ci t yofwomeni n・ hi gh- r anki ngposi t i onsi nt he Gover nment ,t heDi et ,t hel ocalassembl i es,t hej udi ci ar y,aca- demi aandt hedi pl omat i cser vi ce・( Uni t edNat i ons2009,p.9) . Thi sr epor tspeci f i cal l ysuggest edi nt r oduci ng・ quot as,bench- mar ks,t ar get sandi ncent i ves・f ort hepur poseofi ncr easi ngt he numberofwomeni n・ pol i t i calandpubl i cl i f e・( Uni t edNat i ons 2009,p.9) .Thi swast hef i r stt i met hatt hewor d・ quot a・appear ed i naCEDAW r epor tonJ apani nr el at i ont owomeni npol i t i cs.
Subsequent l y,f ort hef i r stt i me,t heJ apanesegover nment( l edby t heDPJatt het i me)i ncl udedment i onofquot asi nt heThi r d Basi cPl an.Speci f i cal l y,t heBasi cPl anst at es,
Inor dert oi ncr easet hepr opor t i onoff emal ecandi dat esi nt heLower HouseandUpperHouseel ect i ons,wer equestt hatpol i t i calpar t i escon- si dergr ant i ngi ncent i ves,est abl i shi ngconcr et enumer i calt ar get sandi n- t r oduci ngaquot asyst em,andt hel i ke,t oensur ewomencompr i sea cer t ai nper cent ageofcandi dat es( GenderEqual i t yBur eauCabi netOf f i ce websi t e,accessed19/3/11) .
Fukushi maMi zuho,l eaderoft heSoci alDemocr at i cPar t y( SDP) ,
cl ai msr esponsi bi l i t yf ort hi si ncl usi on( AFERmeet i ng,2013) .
７TheSDPwasi ncoal i t i ongover nmentwi t ht heDPJandt hePeo- pl e・ sNewPar t ybet weenSept ember2009andMay2010.The t i mi ngi ndi cat est hati nt er nat i onalpr essur eonJ apanf r om t he UN combi nedwi t hpr essur ef r om Fukushi maMi zuho,whof or abr i efper i od,hadswayonpol i cywhent heSDP wasi n coal i t i ongover nment ,i nf l uencedof f i ci alaut hor i t i est obegi nt he di scussi onaboutquot aswhi chdomest i cwomen・ sgr oups,such asAFERandWINWINhavebeencampai gni ngf orovert hepr e- vi ous20year s.
Int er nat i onalt r endi ngenderquot as
Theappear anceoft hewor d・ genderquot as・f ort hepur poseof i ncr easi ngt henumberofwomen i n deci si on- maki ngr ol es, i ncl udi ngpol i t i cs,i nof f i ci aldocument shashappenedwi t hi nan i nt er nat i onalcont extwher et henumberofcount r i esest abl i shi ng genderquot asyst emsi si ncr easi ng.Speci f i cal l y,si ncet heUN Four t hWor l dConf er enceonWomen( FWCW)i n1995,agr ow- i ngnumberofcount r i eshavei mpl ement edgenderquot asf ort he pur poseofi ncr easi ngt henumberofwomenel ect edt oof f i ce.
TheFWCW wast hecul mi nat i onofaser i esofUNwor l dcon- f er encesonwomenwhi chst ar t edi n1975.The・ Pl at f or m f or Act i on・t hatemer gedf r omt hi sconf er encespeci f i cal l yaddr essed genderi nequal i t yi npol i t i cs( FWCW 1999,Ar t i cl e190a) .The Pl at f or m i ndi cat est hatt hef ocusoft hepr obl em oft heunder - r epr esent at i onofwomeni npol i t i cshasshi f t edf r omt he( l ackof )
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