On imperatives of coexistence and
communication
著者
Joff Peter Norman Bradley
雑誌名
dialogos
号
13
ページ
127-152
発行年
2013-03
URL
http://id.nii.ac.jp/1060/00005049/
Creative Commons : 表示 - 非営利 - 改変禁止 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.ja127
Onimperativesofcoexistenceandcommunication
JoffPeterNormanBradley InthisessaylexplorethepossibilityofaLingisianphilosophyofjusticeand ecologybyconsideringthenotionofimperativesemergingfifombothhumans andtheenvironmentatlarge.Ialsoinquireintothepossibilityofspeakingin one'sownnameandvoiceinamannernotcircumscribedbytheorderingof theorderawords("@oな‘わ『〃e).Idothisbyexaminingakeynotelectureatthe 2012SocietyfbrEuropeanPhilosophyconferenceinManchester,England, byemeritusphilosopherAlphonsoLingis.InthelectureentitledtheRe""""Qf S"峡α伽",Lingisdiscussesthenatureofordelswordsandtheirconnectionto whathetermsselfconscioussulJectivity.Reworkinghisnumerousruminations ontheproblemoflanguageandsuhjectivity,hequestionedanewthenatureof perfbrmativespeechacts・Hisconclusionwasinnovativeandexperimentaland worthyofdeepreflection.Ishallextendandconnecthisremarkstoecology and,inparticular,tothenotionsofcoexistenceandcommunication-two pivotalconceptsinhisphenomenology-toconsiderifonecanindeedextricate oneselffromthehorrorofthealways-alreadys"dtospeakthesingularlynewl tospeakinone'sownname.Orputanotherwayllshallaskafierthecontextsin whichonefindsitisoneselfsayingsomething@essential'(Lingis,1994,p.116). Myownstandpointwillbetothinkcommunicationandcoexistencethrougha considerationofphenomenology,ecologicalthoughtandtheinfinitedemandof theother. Keywo7伽:L加g/s,coexj!We"ce,ecoﾉOgMLev腕as,phe"o"@e"oﾉogM's"峡α”〃128 JoffPeterNormanBradley One'swords Ifone'swordsarealwaysalreadyordered,howcanonespeakotherthanthe demandsandimperativesemittedfromelsewhere？Ifthesocialmachineorders selfconsciousspeechacts,whatistheconditionofpossibilityoffleeing？Speech actsaretakennotasintuitiveorrepresentationalbutaspragmaticmanoeuvres commandedfifomtheoutside・ThroughthecirculationofordePwords,thevoice ofthefirstpersonpronoun6I'appearselsewhere,always-alreadyfbrmedthrough clicheandhearsay,homorder-words.LetustakeLingistomeanthatordela wordsarethose.brieftrenchantexpression3-passwords,watchwords,and clues-whichdirectustosuitablediscourse.Talk,Lingissays,consistsentirely ofquotations,hearsay,ofcommandswhichwepassontoothers.Inthisway, one'sownvoiceseemstobelongelsewhere. Priortothespeechthatisimperativeandinfbrmative,thatdirects,ordersand commands,Lingisarguesthatthereisacommunicationmuchmoreprimaryand fimdamental.Inanessayentitled@Violations',Lingissays:itisacommunication cfbrthosenothereandfbrthosewhowelaughwithandweepover.Ourspeech ispolarisedbythegrandthings,theblessedeventsthatcomeassurprisesand accidentsfifomtheoutside,andalsobythesinisterthing3(seeBuckner,2006,p. 24)． Tbescapethetreadmillofhearsayandtheeverydaychatterofr"er〃ay,Lingis considershowthenotionofselfconsciousnessfindsitswayintotheoe"w"eof Deleuze&Guattari・Heconsiderstherhythmsandmovementsoftheselfand wondershowitisthattheselfconnectsthroughbodilycomportmentandgait. Thattheselfisnotasingularconsciousnessbutporoustothepointofdissomtion suggeststhedispersalofsubjectivity.InvitalmovementswithinoneselfLingis argues,onefindsanintensivesenseoftheotherinoneself;whichsuggeststhat meaningisdrawn廿omdiscreteunitsascpatternsofvariation'pertainingto
Onimperativesofcoexistenceandconununication 129 differentsituations-akindofincorporealpropertyascribabletobodiesand events・ Order-wordsarehistoricalyetconstituteadiscontinuousmultiplicityas eachofthemisutteredatadatablemoment・Theyarecommandsratherthan infbrmation,withlittleconsistencyandcoherenceamongthem､Communication withthingsisnotextractionofinfbrmationordata,butoffindingoneself invadedandpopulated(seeBradley,2011).Inadiscussionontheeventofthe face,Lingisaddsthattheblackholeofthefaceabsorbsandannihilatesthe polyvocityofexpression.Theeyesintheface-whichindividuateyouasan anonymousandchangeablememberofaparticularpact-isolateyou-grant imperativefbrcetopasswords,watchwords,andclues.Theeyesareordersand prohibitions・Inthesearchingofthatwhichsinglesyouout,whichtakesyouin, thereareblackholes-whichconsumeallintheissuingofprohibitions. JUdithPoxon(inTaylor,2002,p.221)findinLingis'sphenomenologytheidea thatthenonhumanworld.seduces'thesuhjectinsomewaythroughfiagmentary demandsofafimdamentalnatureequaltoorifnotmorepowerfillthanthe ethicaldemandsbythehumanother・Inthisway,andapplyingaDeleuzian readingofdifferenceandrepetition,Lingisopensupthepossibilityofareturnto thepre-Kantianworldofthingsinthemselves. Criticalofthenarrowhuman-directedfiameworkofLevinas,Lingisrefilses todelimitethicalexperiencetothecon廿ontationwithanotherhumanbeing. Heclaimsthatthedemandinsensingthehungerandneedofanotherhuman isextendabletootherspecies・InarecentinterviewwithJonasSkabkauskas (2011),heargues:@@Iflcomeuponaninjuredbirdordeerinapath,itisexactly thesamething,itseemstome.''Speechactsaresomehowutterancespredicating imentionalq族α,and,whichinsomewayllatchontotheidentityofasuhject. Theselfconsciousisaffective.TheaffectiveselfLconsciousisderivedfroman
130 JoffPeterNonnanBradley
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fbritistheheteronomicotherwhichfbrcesonetogiveanaccountofoneselfHereweasksimplyifthesocialmachinefacesandfbrcesustospeakinour
nameandifthereisnoinnercompulsiontoauthenticity,howdoesoneauto-generatespeechacts？Moreover,itisnotcompulsiontoinsightortruthfnlness， butaquestionofsingularorindividualaffbctiveexperiencesandaffective attachmenttothefaceitselfLingis(2012)argues:"Thespeakerattacheshimself tothefacethatconfiPontshiminanxietyjfbreboding,deference,compliance.''It isinconsideringpride,spite,shameandresentmentthatwhenlspeaklsubmit myselftojudgmem.Iamcalledupontointerveneinevents.Icommitmyselfto acourseofaction.Ijustifymyselfinmyownnameanddonotrepresentanyone. HeretheGI'becomesanopeningfbrmovement.TheordeFwordinthissense becomesacryofalarm;itindicatesalineofflight.Wordsherearethosesaidnot fbrtheirrepresentationalfbrmbutfbrtheircondensing,intensifyingfbrce.They becomemantras(Lingis,1994,p.64). Itisinbodilyactions,multiplemovements,inthepropertiesofbodily flowsandexcitationsthatspeechactstransgressaninflictedverdict.One findsmultipleaffectsinaparticularaction.Weseekmorecomplexpolyvocal expressionsofthosemovements,withconceptswhicharethemselvesmore complexandvariable.Lingissaysitisinmultiplemovementsandconnections thatwebreak廿eeoftheverdictplaceduponus.FollowingDeleuze,Lingissays itisin@theharshestexerciseofdepersonalisation'(Deleuze,1995,p.6)that weengageinbecoming-other.Itisincommunionwithanimals,rivers,stones, cloudsthatwelearntosaysimplethingsinourownname.Onimperativesofcoexistenceandcommunication 131 ForLingis,selfconsciousnessisapassionateattachmentthatradiatesan affectivesenseofoneselfAlthoughpassionateattachmentisorderedbythe socialmachinery,itisinthedepthsandrichesintheobiectofattachmemthat producesapowerinoneselftomachineabecoming.DorothyOlkowski(2011) makesthepointwellthatitistheworldofdepthsandabyssesthatsensibilitycan bedrawninj"ﾌ""velytothevorticesthatpopulatethesedepths. O O O AsadarkprecursortothespeculativerealismofGrahamHarman(2010), LingisalsoechoesthefledglingthoughtexperimentsoftheOhjectOriented Ontology(OOO)ofQuentinMeillassoux(2008),RayBrassier(2007)ααﾉ， (thoughhewouldobjecttoelidingthedistinctionbetweenthingsandohjects). OOOisacriticismofcorrelationism,whichissaidtopertaintothebeliefthat thingscanonlyexistinrelationtohumanmindsorlanguage.OOOaimsto decentrethehumansubjectinordertoreturntothethingsthemselves,inall theiruncannyth加g加ess.ItistoaffirmHusserl'sandHeidegger'sarguments thatthingshaveanirreducible,s/Weryjdarkside.Throughthisradicalrealist prism,thereisamoveawayfromsuhject-oIjecttooIJect-oljectrelationships.It isarealistontologywhichseekstoexplaintheinterrelationshipbetweenobjects. Writingofthe｡revenge'ofthehyperohjects,TimothyMorton(2010)explicates onthe@non-local'ohject,a伽"g加蛎el/;thatis@massivelydistributedintime andspacesuchthatanyparticular(local)manifestationneverrevealsthetotality of[it]'.Heexplains(2011,p.165):"We'vebecomesousedtohearing.object' inrelationto@suhject'thatittakessometimetoacclimatizetoaviewinwhich thereareonlyobjects,oneofwhichisourselves.'' Yet,fbrLingis,whatweperceiveisreal.InapaperentitledGReturnofthe First-PersonSingular'(2012b,p.172),Lingissayswhatisperceived,whatorders
132 JoffPeterNonnanBradley oursensibilityandmovements,isnotsimplyalinguisticandsocialconstruct.As suchheargues,weneedatheory-amoreconcreteconceptofthefirst-person singular-thatunderstandsthisrealityofthisorderingfbrce.Lingisasksofthe imperativesinthings,innature'saccomplishments.Ashesays:cGWerecognize animperativewhenwerecognisewhatisthreatenedorimportant.Andassistance isurgentandwearetheonewhoisthereandwhohasthepowertoact"(Lingis, 2012a).ItisherethatwesenseasimilaritywiththeecologicalissuesofMorton whoinvokesasensitivitytotheimperativeofthingswhichdirectsandguides. WorkingthroughLingisandapplyingtheimplicationtoecologicalandohject-orientedphilosophy,Morton(2007)designateshissymbioticconceptofthemesh orinterconnectednessasasensualohject.Hereexistenceisprimarilybeingas coexistence.Mortonthinkstheabsolutewithdrawalofthingsintermsofthe Lingisianimperative.Theinheringfbrceoftheworldsummonsusassubjects. Thesensibilitythatwithdraws廿omtheworldissubjectedtotheelementalas thatwhichprecedestheworldandthings・Intheretreat廿omtheworld,weare suhjectedtotheelementalimperative・AlthoughKant'simperativeshavethe JMwoflawbtheimperativeinLingisianphenomenologydescribesthejbrcesof thingsandotherpersons・TherefbreLingis呵ectsKant'snotionofautonomyas unnecessarilyinward-lookingandremote,andtherefbre,clearlydisconnected fromtheexteriorityofthings,ohjects,andpersons.Yethiselementalimperative reflectsKant'snotionofthesublimeasafimdamentalimperativemode・For Lingis,moralimperativesexceedtheoveFfbrmalisationofKantianlawthrough theabsolutealterityoftheother・WhilebothKantandLingisconcurwiththe primacyofthemoralimperative,theimperativeisnotgivenfifomwithinthe fbrmallawsofthought,buttheimperativeisaninvasionfromwithout・The elementalispriortometaphysicsofalterityyetpossessesanimperativethat summonsthesubjecttothinkfimdamentallyabouttheexperienceoflifeitself
Onimperativesofcoexistenceandcommunication 133 Theelementalimperativeissensitivetothedirectivesfbrsublimeactiontocare
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itself;todeepenitsunderstandingandexperienceoflifeitself Indescribingtheuncannynessoflifefbrmsasstrangestrangers,both familiarandotherwise,anddesignatingecologicalthoughtasadescription ofthemultitudeofentangledstrangestrangers,atranslationofDerrida's αγ･〃vam,theultimatearrival,Mortonappearstobewritingin-betweenreligious experience,anarchistthoughtandthephenomenologyofLingis.Coexistence soundsexceedinglysimilartothemutualaidideasofPeterKropotkin(1955). Thestrangeristhefbreigner・Theencounterwithafbreignerfromanother place,nationorwoddisuncanny;itisthestrangestofallencoumers.Inanother waylwecansaythatthe6I'isanecologicalcomplex,comprisedofthemeshof strangestrangers,witheachentityirreducibletothenext,anduntoitself Morton'sideasalsosharesomesimilaritywithKinjilmanishi(1902-1992), whoinhistheoryofshingengaku(nature-study)aimstodecemresperception. Theself;fbrlmanashi,isaneventconstitutedinactionsinrelationshiptothe totalenvironment,ofwhichitisanintegralpart.Thinkingagainstthisviewj andcontratheconceptofnatureassuch,MortoninhisZWeEcoﾉogicaﾉZVio"ghr, invokeshisideaofthemesh,describedasallfbrmsoflifeanddeadlife,asaway tothinkinterconnectedness,connectedwithotherbeings-animal,vegetable, ormineral.Fortheselftheego,subjectivityisnotselfconsolidatingbutonly emergesthroughcontact.YetfbrLingis(2001,p.298)thereisanecological consciousnessofamoreprimitivenatureundergirdingthemindofho"zo/tz6" thatistosay,thevisionofmanasatool-makinganimalpopularisedbyHannah Arendt(1998).134 JofTPeterNonnanBradley SelfLconsciousspeechacts
lnselfLconsciousspeechhowdoesonesaysomethingnew？Howdoesone
speaktothoseyettocome,tothemonstrousα〃"α",toabsolutealterity？It
seemstomethatthisideaconnectswiththedvを"e"e"応ofMayl968inParisa
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eventofspeakinginone'snamethattheinauguralandsingularisuttered・The lineofflightbreaksthroughtheorderingoftheorderwordstofbrmapassword -albeittemporaryandrecuperative-tosaythenew・Thelineofflightexceeds theidletalkcomprisedofquotations,hearsay,andclicheandtheorderawords inperpetualcirculation.Moreover,contraideologieswhichexpressinterests ofspecificgrouporclass,order-wordscommandratherthandisseminate infbrmation. LingiswillsaythatspeechactsproduceselfLconsciousnesseventhough theydonotarrivespomaneouslywithinus・Theyareratherimposeduponthe cI'fifomwithout・Itisnotininnercompulsiontoauthenticityandtruthfillness, Lingissaysthatonespeaksasoneselfbecauseitisothers,thesocialmachine, whichcompelsthe6I'tospeak・ThewayoutofthisnightmarefbrLingisisa questionofaffectiveattachment・Itisthewaythespeakerattacheshimselfto thefacethatconfifontshiminanxiety,fbreboding,deferenceandcompliance. Importantly,tospeakinone'sownnamemeanstoenterintoevents,tosubmit oneselftojudgment,tobeheldaccountable.Whilethesocialmachinebindsus toproductionofselfconsciousacts,Lingisargueswecaninsomewayexceed thelimitsofcommands,andtransgresstheverdictputuponusthroughbyCbodily actions,multiplemovementsinthepropertiesofbodilyflowsandexcitations' (2012a). PoeticallylLingisthinksbeyondthefaceofasocialmachinerythatsanctions andprohibits,andenvisagesaworldas@asetofdirectionsanddirectiveS(1999b,Onimperativesofcoexistenceandconnnunication l35 p､290),wheremultipledrivespassionatelyattachtothingswhichguideour lives.InDα"9℃γozJsEJwo"o"s(2000,p.71),Lingisconsiderstheideaofblessing andgraceasthebeginningandendofecologicalawareness:c1Athinkerwho comprehendswiththehands,handsmadefbrblessing,seesswallowsandowls, wetlandsandtundrapullulatewithgrace・Blessingisthebeginningandtheend ofallecologicalawareness.'' Regardlessofsharedlanguageorculture,Lingissaysinacommunityofthose whohavenothingincommon,itisincommunallaughter,in〃"CO"伽"o"α／ 〃α"叩α．e"Cy,thatwecommunicatesomethingtotheother.Itisinakindof nonsensicalcommunicationwhentheeverydayresourceoflanguagebreaks down,whenthereisafractureintheestablishedorderofthings,thatwe communicatesomethingmeaningfill.Itiswhenourfbrtresses,draw-bridges, wallsanddoorsarerendereduseless,thatwemustexposeourvulnerabilityto theother. ResonatingsomewhatwithWalterBenjamin'sstatementthatitisonlyfbr thesakeofthosewithouthopethathopeisgiventous,Lingissaysitisinthe exposureofvulnerabilitytotheotherthatresponsibilityemerges.Infinding oneselfsummoned,Lingis(1989,p.146)says,onehas@toanswertotheotherfbr thewantsandfailings,thedeedsandmisdeeds,andeventheveryresponsibility oftheother'.Beneathandbeyondtherationalexchangeofinfbrmation,there isanotherfbrmofcommunity,thecommunityofstrangers.Thiscommunity troublestherationaloneasitactsasitsdoubleorshadow・Befbretherational communityofHegel'sGIthatisWe'andcWethatisI',Lingiswrites,thereisthe encounterwiththeother(Lingis,1994,p.10).Itisnotthroughthedepersonalised intellect,abstractmeaningorthroughthecurrentdominantrationaldiscourse ofordeFwordsthatoneexposesoneselftoanimperativebutthroughsomething moreprimaryandexistential.Thespectreoftheimperativestandsoutside
136 JoffPeterNormanBradley therationalcommunity,orinthelanguageofDeleuzeandGuattari(1987)the apparatusofcapture,anddiminishestherangeandscopeofpossibilityofthe sayableandthesaid・Theimperativeisheardinthep〃α"cfactofspeaking,the presenceinbeing-there,in-the-accompanying-the-other-towards-death・Inthe priorsayablethereissomethingmorefimdamentalthanthesaid・Inthesaying, wefindtheessentialandweightoftheimperative;somethingdistinctfromthe said.Communicationthenisfbundedatthelimitofcommunicationwhenone mustspeak,whenone'ssimplepresenceissufficienttospeakvolumes・Itisin listeningtothesoundlessimperativeoftheother'spresence,thatthesuhjectis directedandcompelledtorespond.Attunementtotheenvironmentisalistening tocommandsandimperatives.FollowingLevinas,Lingiswillarguethatbefbre ontology,oneisabeingjbrsomeonepriortobeingw". Levels Lingigsphenomenologyisbasedonatheoryoflevels-selfcontainedand mutuallyexternallevels-uponwhichthingstakefbrm,uponwhich6thingssee ug､Insuchspaces,weobservetheanonymous,uncannyelemental,the"yQor thereis,qthereness・Thebeingofbeings,"yq,theactivityofsensualelements, precedesandundergirdsthespecificityofthings・The"y"isGthebeginningof communication'(Lingis,1994,p.114).Yetthe"Jﾉaisnotperceptiblethrough philosophicaldemonstrationassuch.Ratheritisexposedthroughexperience andexpressedinliterarywritingasallcommunicationissingular・The"y" ispainfbritisthroughcontaminationandcontactwithalteritylinrelationsof exposureandabandon,thatcommunication"kesplace.Lingis(1988,p.7-8)says onthispoint: 7Wis"peγα"veisﾉocqred加娩ephe"o"@e"α城e脇加w"cル的eo""/ig@""es加
Onimperativesofcoexistenceandconnnunication 137 油eme"SZ""et〃αro"epeﾉ℃eか""oIw@ply"pqychqph)McαﾉoFgα"zs加花叩o"伽"g ror"epress"resα"d/"resQ/"se"@p"jcαﾉe"v"o""e"t,伽〃α/heγα〃α〃re ﾉα〃ed""d6"bred勿的ejb'℃esQMee"''加"〃e"r,sz縦加g肋e伽αα花sqfα〃 "pem"ve""dOes"o"ejg〃加加e"o"α吻加physiccI/"""re.o"edOes"ot perceiverheg"ic"cyqfα〃伽"eFprogrq"γ""ﾉα""g"8o増α"sa"cMjsﾉ加加 o"ew腕ces,o"ese"sesr"epα加.O"edOes"o/peJ"ceivejhepα加wheγe"jS,加 rhepSyc"cdep妨加w"ch〃SCW"〃eγyo"Sc舵""ryk"ows"Fel/fo"ese"ses" α〃hesz"@/Zzce8qfco""cr. Againsttheideaofholisminphenomenology,andatoddswithlmanishi's anthropocentricholism(2002),thequasi-panpsychismofLingisentertains theideathattheworldiscomprisedofnumerousselfLcontainedandmutually externallevels,towhichhumansmustadjusttheirperceptionsandideas. Lingisextendstheimperative廿ominterpersonalethicstotheentirefieldof reality・Ethicalimperativesemergenotonlyfifomotherhumans,butalso廿om animals,plants,andeveninanimateobjects.Thequestionisoneoflistening andhearingthesummonsasaportentouseventaddressedtoone'ssensibilityla sensibilitywhichisaresponsetothedirectivesofthings・肋彪"seco加加""cα"o〃 istherefbrearticulatedindirectivesfbundinthe@carpentryofthingg(Lingis, 1994,p.41),inthe@pageantryofthing3,inthefaceoftheother.Thoughtis obediencetothedirectiveswhichsummonus.Themovementofperception respondstothedirectivesinthings,whichemergeintheelements,assensuous realitiesandintelligentstructures,andthroughmyriadplateausandlevels. Sensualityisapathicmovementofinvolution. Lingisexpoundsaphenomenologyofthelevels,whicharedepictedasthe sitethroughwhichthingstakefbrm.Sensuouselementsaredepthswithout surfacesorboundaries.ItisinthisexplicationthatweseeLingisthinkingnature
138 JoffPeterNonnanBradley or<thefathomlessplenumoftheelementl"esrhe"cα〃throughthesublime.
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summonsustoadirectivetoactethically.Consideringtheecologicalsensitivity impliedinthetheoryoflevels,Harman,afbrmerstudentofLingis,(2005,p.83) notes:cCWhatweactuallydoislistenandrespondtotheweaknessofthebird andthe廿ailtyoftheflower,andratchetourtendernessorviciousnessuptothe appropriatelevelneededtocomfbrtordestroythesecreatures.，， Indiscussingthenatureofrealityandthings,Lingisaddsthatrealityweighs onthesuhjectoppressivelyandtosuchanextentthatonecannotbeindiffbrent toit(Lingis,1998,p.119).Animperativeweighsonthoughttotheextentthat thoughtfindsoneselfcommandedtothink.Assuch,wemustrespondtothe elementalwhichitselfweighsonusasan@alimentaryimperative'(Sparrow, 2008).Lingissaysthatintheenvironment,asafieldofintensivefbrces,vibrant accordingtoinnercodes,thecareonelivingbeinghasfbranother,fbraniniured animal,orfbraplantpushingitswaytothesun,isfbundintheantennaofour J"es"ess"el".Assuch,wearesingularisedincarryingoutthisaction.Lingis designatestheelementalas.unfbrmedprimematter'(Lingis,1986).Itisinfinite, multi-leveled,andcomprisedofmyriadlevels・Theelementisthealterityof sensuousmaterial:thealimentary.Alterityalwaysarrivesfifomsensiblematerial. Thereisanimperativeinthesensibilitythatexposesitselftotheelementin whichsensorypatternsandfbrcestakefbrm.Lingisaddsthatthecarnalfaceof theotherisanelementalimperative・ThenotionofimperativeenactsaCcertain kindsofsymbioses'anddescribesthecertainwaysinwhichtheoutsideinvades us.Theperceptionofthepresenceorperceptionofthethingsthemselvesisthe perceptionorexistenceofrealsensoryobjects. Onthebasisofthisecologicalsensitivity,thingsareimportant加r〃emseんes，Onimperativesofcoexistenceandconnnunication 139 andtorealisethisistoseewhattheyrequiretoexist,toseewhatharmsor threatens;itistosensethepowerstosafeguardornurture,torescueorrepair. Itistosensetheimperativetoprotectwhatisthreatenedorwhenassistanceis commandedorrequested.ItistoregisterthatitisCI'whoistheonewhoisthere andhasthepowertoact.Theimperativethatcommandsisnotpartofaverdict-producingmachinebutonewhichatoncedirectsandguides.Lingiswritesof thealienimperativewhichisfeltGinthesurfaceswithwhichtheotherfacesme withhisorherwearinessandvulnerabilityandwhichafflictsmeandconfbund myintentions'(1994,p.32).FollowingLevinas,Lingissaystheanarchic responsibilitytotheotheristheconditionofexistence.The6I'cannotbewithout apriorresponsibilitytotheother・Lingisdescribestherelationshipwithalterity asabond,ofbeing$commanded,contested,havingtoanswertoanotherfbrwhat onedoesandfbrwhatoneis・Itisalsofindingoneselfaddressed,appealedto…， (LingisinLevinas,2002,p.xxii). Sparrow(2009)makestheclaimthatLingisissetonfbrmulatingafilll-blown corporealorinter-corporealmaterialismofbeing-in-the-world・Throughthe phenomenologicalexpositionofthepolyvocalityoftheface,Lingistakeshiscue fifomLevinastoruminateuponthesenseofexposuretotheoutsideemergent fromwithinthematerialityofsensation.AccordingtoLingis,beneaththe rationaleverydaynessofanonymousdiscourseisarelationshipwhichdemands theexposureanddenudingofconsciousnesstoitselfandtothestranger,tothe intruder-theonewithwhomonehasnothingincommon. LingigsmodelofcommunicationisconstructedfromtheworkofSerres, Bataille,Nancy,Blanchotamongothers,anddrawsonthephenomenological themesofalterityinHeideggerandLevinas.Inmodifyingtheabstract fbrmalismofHusserliantranscendentalphenomenologyjLingisreconfiguresthe Merleau-Pontiannotionofapm"og"osiSorientedtothings,wherepmhog"osig
140 JoffPeterNormanBradley isembodied,practicalknowledgeorthebe加gα〃eto.Usingideasshapedby HeideggerandLevinas,theethicaldimensiontotheimperativesprings廿omthe simplestfbcusofoureyesinaparticularwaytoseeacertainobject,ortotreat ohjectsinspecificways.Exposuretothevulnerabilityoftheface,dethronesthe ontologicalrighttoexistence・Itisinouropennessandinourgazethatthings revealthemselvesandapproachus.Theempathywhichemergesfifomthisisthe answeringofaneed,thesatisfactionofawantwithone'sownsubstance・Inthe prefacetoOthe"wiserｶα〃6e加g(2002,xxii),LingisdescribesLevina3sethical injunctionthus: 〃jseve"roberespo"sib/ejbバカeye〃伽加ルecα"ses"ze,""e/伽"/br"s persec""o"-"eco"restα"o〃ルe/br碗"伽“αgα伽r"@ejbrw加〃did""α"rhor oγα"rhorなe、 Theimperativeofanarchicjustice Theimperativeofanarchicjusticeisoutsidetheboundsofnormative ethics・Itasksofthepossibilityofpermanentandpeacefillcoexistencewith theincommensurable,withthestranger,withtheother.Theimperativefifom thingsispriortothealways-alreadyorderoftheorder-words,priortothe repetitionofthealways-alreadysα〃.Hereitisimperativetothinkthetheory ofcommunicationasaconsiderationoftheLingisianposedquestionofhow distressinthecouterzones'-inthesinkestates,banlieues,favellasandslums -throughkindsofseparationandexclusion-becomesourdistresswhen confrontedwiththefacethatbeseeches,thatmakesinfinitedemands.His suggestionisthatitisonlyintheCwretchedplacefthatwecomeintocontact withthe.strongemotion5(2000,p.80).Contactistherefbretheelemental relation,thefbundationlessfbundationofethicalrelationships.
Onimperativesofcoexistenceandcommunication 141 LingisthinksthenotionofdistressthroughaninterpretationofJean-Luc Nancy'swork(1991)andconsidershowknowledgeisacquiredwithsingularities incommonthroughakindofcoexistencewithalterity.Herecoexisre"ceis abecoming,abecoming-other・Nancysaysitisinourdistressthatweknow ourcoexiste"ce.Inthisjoltingoftheeveryday,thereisan"perα伽e-a compositeofMerleau-Ponty'sdirectivesfbrperceptionandLevinas'sdoctrine ofabsolutealterityandthemesofexteriority-ofcooperation,collaboration, partnership-""dcoexistencewiththeother.Itisincontactandinempathising withthedistressoftheother,thatwebecomeawareofasharedfinitude. Despitetheunworkingnatureoftheco加加""〃as,webecomeawareofthe horrorscommittedinourname,webecomecognisantoftheactsagainstthe other,thedowntrodden,thepoor,thefbreignandaltogetherdifferent.Nancy writesin"Opeγα"veCo加加"〃〃(1991,p.71):@6Communitymeansherethe sociallyexposedparticularityinoppositiontothesociallyimplodedgenerality characteristicofcapitalism.''ThispointissharedbyLingisinhiscritiqueofthe death-in-lifesubjectivityfbundinthewhathetermstransnational@archipelago ofurbantechnopoles'. Tbunderstandthispointitisimportanttoappreciatehowdistressintheouter zonesbecomesourown.Inanessayentitled4Anger'(seeSheppard,1997,p.12), Lingisinquiresintothesharedsenseofdistresswhenwegainknowledgeofthe 5exterminationswroughtuponpeoplesinandalsothecultureoftechnicisation andsimulationthatreignsintherichesturbantechnopoles'.Animusisdirected totheominoushumanitybeco加加gtangible-tangibleinitsinhumanity (Sheppard,1997,p.204). ThereisalsoanaccountofethicalexperienceinLingisnotlimitedtotheface ofone'sownkindbuttootherspecies・InfluencedbyLevinasagainonthispoint, Lingissaysthefacewhichstandsbefbremeisalsofacedbythirdparties,who
142 JoffPeterNormanBradley facewithappealsanddemands.Inthiscycleoftriadicmutualselfrecognition,
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facehimandallthosewhofacethosewhofacehim. ItisalsoinnaturethatweperhapsfindordeFwordsthatcompelustoactin thisorthatethicalway.Intheeyesofafacethatsinglemeout-inthefelineeyesofDerrida'scat-oneisorderedtoaddimperativefbrcetopasswords,
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me,makingdemandsuponme. Returningtothe20121ecture,wefindLingisdescribingtheimperativesin things,explicatinguponimperativeswhichguideandcounsel,whichsustain thespecificfbrcesofthefirst-personsingular・UnderscoringLingigsthought isanexhortationtolearntolistentomaterialsubstance,thethingsthemselves, toadoptanewsensitivitytothenatureofthings・Itisthroughapassionate comportmenttothingsthatwelearntosaysomethinginourownname.Itis withthemultipledriveswhichpassionatelyattachtothingsandwhichguide ourlivesthatwebecomesensitivetotheimperativeofthings.InLingisian phenomenology,thenonhumanworld@seduce3the6I'throughethicaldemands equaltothehumanother. TheethicalexhortationinLingisisamodeofcosmologicalthinking (Mickunas,1978)opposedindegreetothecalculative,utilitarianlogicofcapitalOnimperativesofcoexistenceandcommunication 143 andmodernrationality.TheethicalinjunctionisakintoKant'sbutexceedsthe limitsofrationalisthumanism.Lingigsmethodofembodiedphenomenology isatoncepoetic,richlymetaphoricanddescriptive.Hisownwritingisitself anethicalact,anethicaladdress,asitconteststhepresuppositionsofmodern rationality,andwhatliesonthethithersideofthoughtandcalculation.Itis alisteningtotheinternalnoise・Asensitivitytotheintimacybetweenliving things.HeretheethicaldimensionisnotdeontologicalinthestrictKantiansense becauseLingisbeginswiththeexternalfbrceoftheimperative,whereasKant beginswithitsinternalfbrmulationintheoreticalreason.Workingintersticially betweenKantandLevinas,Lingisfindsthesuhjectinsuhjectiontoexterior fbrcesandrespondinginresponsibility.Lingisconcursthattheimperativeis selfregulating:"Theimperativecommandsthoughttoorder''(Lingis,1998. p.180).ContratheselflegislatingsuhjectofKant,theimperativeharksfirst fifomtheoutside,fifomthethithersideofalterity.FusingMerleau-Ponty's phenomenologyofperception,theethicsasfirstphilosophyofLevinas,Nancy's notionofinoperablecommunity,Bataille'satheologyandDeleuze&Guattari's schizoanalysis,itseemsquiteobviousthatLingisthinksthedemandplaced uponthesubjectquitedifferentlythanKant,fbrthesubjectismoreintimately entwinedwithnature.Thesuhjectistakentobeanemotional,sensual, embodied,empatheticandrationalbeing.AlthoughLingisconcurswithKant thatitisnotnaturethatordersthought,butthoughtthatordersnaturethroughthe imperative,thisviewoftheothermirrorsLevinas'sideathattheothernessofthe otherisconstitutedbytheexteriorityoftheimperative.InresponsetoLevinas's alterityasacontestationofourcontentmentintheelemental,Lingiscriticises asunviablethemetaphysicalconceptsofpleasure,enjoyment,andcontentment, withwhichLevinasunderstoodthesensibilitythatispriortotheperceptionof things.Moreover,LingisquestionsHeidegger'sviewofequipment(Ze"g)as
144 JoffPeterNormanBradley calwaysalready'fbranyone.HeretheelementalimperativeisclosertoLevinas's 叩e〃o"orcosmology,whichculminatesnotinre/osbutinasustainingmedium oflevelswithoutdimensionsorhorizons ItisinjoythatLingisfindsaroutebetweenorbeyondKant'scategoricaland hypotheticalstatusoftheimperative.Yet,criticsofLingissuchNozaki(2008) heresimplymissthepoimbyinsistingonthedistinctionbetweenethicsasfirst philosophyandnormativeethics.Asphenomenologyinquiresintotherelation betweensayingandthesaid,whichisthegroundofhumandiscourseandethics, LingisdevelopsthisLevinasiannotionasthesourceofimperativefbrcethatis obeyedbefbreanyinteriorfbrmulationinlaw.Lingis'soe"w"ethenisnotstrictly
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modeofsubjectivity,thatfbrmofcapitalistic,flattenedrationality.Lingisisnot anti-rationalistperseasNozaki,mistakenly,claimsbutathinkerwhocontests thelimitsofthesayableandthesaid.Hefindsinthephenomenologicalexposure totheother,momentswereadifferentdiscourseisopenedup,albeitbriefly,toa sharedhumanityandcoexistence. TakefbrexampleareferencetotheJapanesepeople.InoneessayLingis (2005)suggeststhatononelevelthenatureoftheJapaneselanguage-inits allusionsandsilences-meansthatalimitisperceivedfbrmanynon-Japanesein understandinginteractionsandfbrmsofJapaneseart.YetonanotherlevelLingis writesastheitinerantphilosopherandtravelerwhoruminatesontheexperiences withoutlinguisticmediation.Ina20031ectureentitledGUnintelligibleLines, UnknownPaths',hesays:.6Howofienwhilewalkingthestreetsofafbreigncity whoselanguageorlanguageswhosecultureandvalueswedonotunderstand,we havefeltimmersedin,onewiththishumanity?''Inwritingonwhatisatstakein conversation,LingisarguesthatculturalfbrmsofJapaneseness-thelanguage, bodykinesics,andsoon-arenotobstaclestothetransmissionofmeaningandOnimperativesofcoexistenceandcommunication 145 affinitywiththeother.Foritisinlaughterandbodilycomportmentthatone understandsdespitepossessionofadifferentsubjectivity(seeOgawa,1998).His contentionisthatoneisoftenmostmovedinconversationswithstrangers,or thosepeoplefifomanotherland,anotherage(Ogawa,p.151).Lingiswillsaythat eachtimeweenterintocommunication,weexposeourselvesinsomewaytobe emptiedout,divestedofconvictions,expectations,andmemories(2000,p.100). LingisdiscernsinLevinasaphilosophyoflimits,aphilosophyofthelimitsof language,thelimitsofthesaid・Lingis,fbllowingLevinas,scrutinisestheidea ofnon-relationalitytotheother.Theotherisirreconcilabledifference,beyond commonlyheldbondsandsharedthoughts;itisacontestationtodtJsge7ede.For Lingis,thefimdamentalrelationoftheselftotheotherispriortothatwhichis common.Heterogenicdifferencetoalterityispre-ontologicallyethical・There isaninescapableappealbefbreanyinfbrmationisbarteredorshared.Against theoriesofcommunicationwhichdepicttheothersasagencieswithwhichwe exchangeinfbrmation,Lingisseesjusticehereasnotamachineofdisinterested calculusorutilitybutasconcreteandparticular,andfbundinactsofbravery. Thisdeepersenseofjustice,Lingiswouldargue,isaninstinctthatmodern societyseekstoerasefromnormativeethicaldebates. Thereistherefbremuchthatisethicalandcriticalofinjusticeinhiswork. LingiWsthought,asanactofitinerologicalinterrogation,isacritiqueof whathard-headed,logic-choppingrationalismsignifies.Itiscallfbramore primordialethics9"αfirstphilosophy.Itisatreatmentoftheselfasotherthan asingular,pure,disembodiedconsciousness・Rathertheselfisporoustothe pointofdissolution・Itisthroughthephenomenologicalmethodthatwediscover adiffbrentsenseofjustice,ethics,fifeedomandequalityintheexposureand sufferingoftheother.ContraNozaki,itseemsoddonthisfionttoclaimthata phenomenologyofembodiedsubjectivityisanti-rational.Moreover,itisdifficult
146 JoffPeterNormanBradley toseeasNozakidoesthatrelativismfbllowsfromthislineofreasoning・In theexposuretotheother,phenomenologyaskshowweinterlacethesayable
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philosophyoffersavisionbeyondthelawofthefactorylschoolorprisonbecause Lingisiskeentoascertainthelimitsofamodern,cold,dissectingrationality whichinitsmostdowncastmomentsenslaves,torturesandmurders. Ecologicalconsciousness IntheKantian-infbrmedphenomenologicalphilosophyandanthropologyof Lingis,histhoughtaddressesthequestionofcoexistenceortheHeidegegrian 加加ase加．Thiseco-phenomenologyisaphilosophywhichcriticisestheway oflifeintherichestpartsoftheworld,inwhathecallsthetechnocratic-commercialarchipelagoofurbantechnopoles.Thequestionofjusticeiscentral inLingi3sworkonthetruthinreconciliation(seeRothfieldaaﾉ,2008).Justice isbornewhenweactinourname,whatweassertourselvestothe"go"of recognitionandcontestation.Moreover,LingisaddstotheKantianimperativea ruminationonthefbrceoftheimperative-whichhasqp"o"status-thereisa demandthatthatweactjustly.Theelementalimperativeispriortotheconcrete encounterwithalterity・Suchaphenomenologyexposesthepresuppositionsof normativeethics.Itundergirdsthemorallawbindingandallowsfbritsfbrm andfbrmulation・ContraNozaki,theimperativesinthingsdemandsneithera universalandnecessaryfbrmofresponses.Theimperativeisnotafbrceoflaw butaportentousevent.Obediencetothelevelsisprimaryandthecondition ofpossibilityofanyinitiativeanyfreedomandsensibilityandmovement. Theagencyofwelcomeandsummonscouldwellbe廿omotheranimals-the summonscouldcomefromplants.Explainingtranscendentohjects,Lingis (1998,p.175)citesjusticeandtruthasexamples:"TheverynotionofjusticeOnimperativesofcoexistenceandconnnunication 147 goesbeyondwhatisdoable.…Withoutapassionfbrjusticeandtruth,whatever Idowithmyneighbor…becomesareciprocalegoismandwhateverweagree uponbecomesourideology.''Withouttranscendentgoals,ouractionsbecome exercisesofmereselfLinterest.Astranscendentohjects,truthandjusticego beyondourselfLinterest.ReworkingLevinas'sconceptofexposuretoand immediatecontactwiththevulnerabilityoftheother,Lingissayssufferingis perceivedasonesensesitatthesurfaceofcontact. ForLingis,moralagencyandresponsibilityrespondtoanimperativesited betweenKant'scategoricalandhypotheticalimperatives・Moralagencybegins insubjectiontoanoriginaryimperativefbrce.Obligationtothesufferingofthe otherisimmediate,beyondthemediationofmutualofrecognition.ForLingis, infatigueandexhaustion,theotherexposeshisorhervulnerabilitytooffenses andhumiliation.Thissufferingafflictsmysensibilityimmediately(Lingis, 1994,p､29-30).Thisfacewhichfaceshumiliation,fatigue,pain,facesmewith animperativethatcannotwaitfbrmydescriptiveaccounting.Thisvulnerability, pleads,demandsaresponse.Intheencounterwiththeother,Lingisfinds6the noiseofanotherperson'slifedisturbingthetranquillityofmine'(1994,p.28). Ecologypertainsfimdamentallytocoexistence.InBe加gSj"g"ﾉarP/z"･fz/ (2000),Nancystatesthatexistenceisalwaysalreadycoexistence,where@being' isonlyeverour.being-with'.Tbbeistobe-with.Andtobeco-presentistobe with・Thisbeing-withisaradicalonce,aradicalintimacylfbrtocoexististobe withotherbeings,sentientandotherwise,animal,vegetal,mineral.Quiteclearly sustainableexistenceisonlyobtainablethroughcoexistence・Co-destruction orco-nonexistencedoesnotgetusveryfarbeyondtheapocalypse.HereLingis writes(seeRothfield,2008)thatunlesspeoplecanenvisionandhopefbra situationwhentheywouldcoexistwiththeirenemieswithoutbeingdegraded, humiliated,andoppressedbythem,coexistenceandreconciliationwillnotbe
148 JoffPeterNormanBradley possible. Nancy'sanswertothequestionofhowladdressinjusticeiswithunquenched anger・Itiswithfrustrationandrage.Thatwellofemotion,thatsurgeofthe visceralisthebeginningofpolitics,ofapoliticsofthenew・Thereisaneedfbr symbiosisandsettlement.Beingisbeingwith,thefirst-personsubjectivitylthe @I',isnotpriorto@we'.Inthefirstinstance,the@we'isanon-suhject.Butmore thannothing;itisGsomeone'eachtime,as6eachone'issomeone.The6we'is utteredinaspecificamalgam,group,ornetwork.Inthesecond,the@we'isjb7･ severyone',fbrthecoexistenceoftheuniverseofthings,animals,andpeoplethat ismuteandwithout.us'.AsNancyputsit,itisin$thetouchoftheworld'(2000, p.13),thebeing-togetherthatatruthispresentedinthew"hofcoexistence.The Gwe'istheGsingularlypluralcoexistence'加whichbeingcirculatesand"which itcirculatesamongsuchselveswithinthe6we'.Theimperativecomesfiomthe being-withbecauseitinmutualabandonmentandexposuretoeachother,that onefbrmstheGI'. Lingis'secologicalvisionhereisanethicalonefbrsensitivityasbﾉessi"gGis thebeginningandtheendofallecologicalawareness(2000,p､71)'.ForLingis,it isintherelationshipwithalteritythatonefindsoneselfcommanded,contested, fbrcedtoanswertoanotherfbrwhatonedoesandfbrwhatoneis，Oneis addressed・Oneisappealedto.Thingsintheworldhaveafbrceandasayinlife. ThesolitaryGI'doesnotsomuchinterpretandmanipulateitssurroundingsbut throughitsheteronomyisalways-alreadyinthemidstofdirectives,emanations andcompulsions・Assuchitisperturbed,exited,thrilledandtransfbrmedby thingsinandoftheuniverse. Inthinkingtheimperativeinthismanner-throughaphilosophicalreworking ofLevinas,Merleau-PontyandKant,Lingisfindstheethicalactinthe confrontationandencounterwithotherbeings,notjustofone'sownilk.The
Onimperativesofcoexistenceandconnnunication 149 demandsputonthe･I'arenotjusthumandemandsbutoriginatefifomother species,eveninanimateobjects・Ifonecomesuponaninjuredanimal,orone understandstherisktoaparticularenvironment,thereisastrongimperativeto care,toactjustlyltodotherightthing.Asethicalimperativesderivenotonly fifomotherhumans,butalsofifomanimals,plants,andeveninanimateobjects, Lingisgivestheexampleofanimperativecommandtosnuboutasmouldering cigarettebuttdroppedinthesequoiafbrestdespitebeingalone.Hereandto returntoLingis'sManchestertalk,theimperativecommandsnotthrough verdictsandtheorderingofthe"@orsoγ〃ebutdirectsandguides.Harman concursandputsitlikethis:｡GWelistenandrespondtotheweaknessofthebird andthe廿ailtyoftheflower,andratchetourtendernessorviciousnessuptothe appropriatelevelneededtocomfbrtordestroythesecreatures"(2005,p.63). Lingis'sphenomenologyisakindofsublimetothinktheintimacywiththereal. Itisaestheticsasfirstphilosophywhichseekstodisclosethethingsthemselves; itisawayoflisteningtothemurmuroftheworld,beyondtheworldofworkand reason,otherthanthehitherandthitherthanwhatgoesfbrcommunicationinthe archipelagoofurbantechnopoles. Refrences Arendt,H,&Canovan,M.(1998).7We加加α〃CO"伽"o".Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress. Buckner,S.C.,&Statler,M.(2006).Sりﾉﾉesq/pie":丹αc"c加gp〃肋sophyq/ierr"e 此αr〃可God.NewYork:FordhamUniversityPress. BradleyJ.(2011).Becoming-troglodyte,Singularum.http:"singularum.com/ Brassier,R.(2007).M〃〃〃"肋""d:E""g〃e"腕e"rα"aex""c"o"・Basingstoke: PalgraveMacmillan. Deleuze,G.,&Guattari,F.(1987).4"o"""dp"eα"s:CZIp加"s”α"dschjZ叩〃e"jα、
150 JoffPeterNonnanBradley Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress. Deleuze,G.(1995)Mgo"α"o"s,〃万-I990,M.Joughin(trans.),(NewYork,Columbia UniversityPress). Harman,G・(2005).G"er""α"etqphysics:P"e"o"2e"oﾉogyα〃/heca叩e"〃" ＃〃加9B.Chicago:OpenCourt. Harman,G・(2010).7bw"亦叩ec"ﾉα"vereα"s"@:Essqysq"d/eα"res.Winchester, UK:ZeroBooks. Imanishi,K.,&Asquith,RJ.(2002).4〃ﾌα"esevjewq/"""re:7Wewo7〃qfﾉM"g 伽"邸.London:RoutledgeCurzon. Kropotkin,RA.,Huxley,T.H.,&PaulAvrichCollection(LibraryofCongress).(1955). Mi""αﾉα凧α/fzcrorqfevo/""o"・Boston:ExtendingHorizonsBooks. Levinas,E.,&Lingis,A.(2002).αherwiserﾙα〃6ej"gorl)gyo"desse"ce.Pittsburgh, Pa:DuquesneUniv.Pr. Lingis,A.(1986).Pﾙe"o〃e"o/ogicq/expﾉα"α"o"s.Dordrecht:M.Nijhoff Lingis,A.(JanuaryO1,1988).TheElementallmperative.Researcル伽Pﾙe"o"Ie"oﾉog)f I8,1,3-21. Lingis,A.(1989).De"ﾙ加""dS吻ec"vi".Bloomington,IndianaUniversityPress. Lingis,A.(1994a).ZWecomm"""QMosew〃o〃αve"orh腕gj"co加加o"BIoomington: UniversityPress. Lingis,A.(Septemberl994b).Intentionalityandthelmperative."rer"α"o"αノ Pﾙ"osOp/ijcaﾉQ"αrierly,34,no.3,issueno､135. Lingis,A.(1998).TWei"1perα"ve.Bloomington,Ind:IndianaUniversityPress. Lingis,A.(2000).Dα"gero"semo"o"s.Berkeley:UniversityofCalifbrniaPress. Lingis,A.(September01,2001).EcologicalConsciousness:ReflectionsonHominids andOtherThinkingAnimals.O･j"cαﾉHひrjzo"s,2,2,283-300. Lingis,A.(January23,2003).UnintelligibleLines,UnknownPaths.Lecture. Lingis,A.(May01,2005).NewWallsinthelnfbrmationAge.Socjaﾉ〃ど"""es,",3, 271-282. Lingis,A.(2012a).TheReturnofSulJectivity[lecture],SocietyofEuropean Philosophy2012conference,ManchesterMetropolitanUniversity,England,
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152 JoffPeterNonnanBradley Sheppard,D.,Sparks,S.,&Thomas,C.(1997).O〃んα"-L"cMz"cy:rhese"seqj pﾙ"osOphy.London:Routledge. Skabkauskas,J.(2011).InterviewwithAlphonsoLingis,Singularum.http:// singularum.com/ Sparrow,T.(JanuaryO1,2008).Enabling/DisablingSensation:TbwardanAlimentary ImperativeinCarnalP〃e"o〃e"oﾉogy．Pﾙ〃osopﾙy乃dqyMjc"gα〃T〃e〃 C〃jcggo-,",2,99-115. Sparrow,T.(2009).Se"sα"o"Rebz"":Q""αﾉO"o/ogy加Lev"asα"dMe'ﾉeα"‐ PO"〃.Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation Thylor,VbE.,&Winquist,C.E.(2002).E"Cyc/Opedi"Q/pos/"zoder"is"p.London: Routledge. WheelerlR.C.(2008).K""伽"んr"zα"”〃e"o"e"oﾉOgicaﾉﾉbrce:KcI"耐〃"perα"ves α"山〃e"rec"vesQfco"reﾉ"porα〃pﾙe"ome"oﾉogy.Washington,D.C:Council fbrResearchinValuesandPhilosophy.
