TRIBAL STATES IN HISTORY: THE EMIRATE OF IBN RASHID AS A CASE STUDY

I nt r oduc t i on

The c onc e pt of t r i ba l s t a t e s a nd t r i ba l ki ngdoms ha s r a pi dl y ga i ne d mome nt um i n t he s t udy of t he hi s t or y of t he Le va nt ove r t he pa s t ye a r s . Pa r t i c ul a r l y t he ki ngdoms of t he I r on Age , Ammon, Moa b, Edom, Ar a m, I s r a e l a nd J uda h a r e of t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s Tr i ba l Ki ngdoms , a l t hough i t r e ma i ns unc l e a r wha t e xa c t l y i s me a nt by ‘ t r i ba l ki ngdom’ . Howe ve r , i n t he pa s t ye a r s s e ve r a l s c hol a r s ha ve ve nt ur e d de f i ni t i ons of wha t a t r i ba l ki ngdom i s ( Kna uf 1992; La bi a nc a a nd Younke r 1998, La bi a nc a 1999;

Bi e nkows ki a nd va n de r St e e n 2001; va n de r St e e n a nd Sme l i k 2007) . The s e e f f or t s ge ne r a l l y f oc us on t he I r on Age s t a t e s e a s t of t he J or da n, Ammon ( Younke r a nd La bi a nc a 1998, La bi a nc a 1999) , Moa b ( va n de r St e e n a nd Sme l i k 2007) a nd Edom ( Kna uf 1992; Bi e nkows ki a nd va n de r St e e n 2001) . The mode l t ha t i s be i ng de ve l ope d l a r ge l y c ons t i t ut e s t he me r gi ng of a t r i ba l s oc i a l or ga ni z a t i on wi t h t he pol i t i c a l f r a me wor k of a s t a t e or ki ngdom. Mos t of t he r e s e a r c h f oc us e s on a r c ha e ol ogi c a l a nd hi s t or i c a l s our c e s , f r a me d i nt o a t he or e t i c a l mode l . The r ol e of e t hnoa r c ha e ol ogy ha s r e ma i ne d l i mi t e d, l a r ge l y be c a us e t he ga p be t we e n t he I r on Age t r i ba l s oc i e t i e s a nd t he mode r n s t a t e s of t he r e gi on s e e ms t oo wi de t o br i dge . Al t hough i t i s r e gul a r l y s t a t e d t ha t s ome of t he mode r n Ne a r Ea s t e r n s t a t e s , s uc h a s J or da n a nd Sa udi Ar a bi a , ha ve a l a r ge t r i ba l c ompone nt , t he y a r e t oo muc h e mbe dde d i n mode r n s oc i e t y t o be us e f ul a s a pa r a l l e l . The r e f or e t he e t noa r c ha e ol ogi c a l c ompone nt of t he s e s t udi e s f oc us e s on t r i be s ’ i nt e r na l pol i t i c s , a nd on t r i ba l e c onomy , r a t he r t ha n on t r i ba l s t a t e f or ma t i on.

　　Howe ve r , t he r e a r e de ve l opme nt s a nd s oc i e t i e s i n t he r e c e nt hi s t or y of t he Ne a r Ea s t , t ha t , whe n we l ook a t t he m mor e c l os e l y , c a n pr ovi de i ns i ght s i nt o t r i ba l s t a t e f or ma t i on on a numbe r of di f f e r e nt l e ve l s .

The pol i t i c al c ont e xt of t he 19 ^{t h} c e nt ur y Ar abi an pe ni ns ul a

Dur i ng t he 19 ^{t h} c e nt ur y AD t he Sout he r n Le va nt , t he r e gi on of Syr i a ( i nc l udi ng Pa l e s t i ne a nd Tr a ns j or da n) a nd t he Ar a bi a n Pe ni ns ul a we r e f or ma l l y pa r t of t he Ot t oma n Empi r e . Howe ve r , i n pr a c t i c e mos t of t he r e gi on wa s mor e or l e s s i nde pe nde nt , c ont r ol l e d by t he l oc a l Ar a b t r i be s ( a l - Ra s he e d1991: 14–15; Br owne 1806: 416–7; Se e t z e n 1854–59/ I I : 340–41; Bur c kha r dt 1822; 1829 pas s i m ) . The s e t r i be s ha d a n a mbi va l e nt r e l a t i ons hi p wi t h t he Ot t oma ns , t ha t f l uc t ua t e d wi t h t he r e l a t i ve mi l i t a r y s t r e ngt h of e a c h pa r t y . Some t i me s t r i be s we r e i nduc e d or f or c e d t o pa y t r i but e t o t he e mpi r e , but mos t l y t he l oc a l t r i be s c ont r ol l e d t he t e r r i t or y s out h of He br on i n t he we s t , a nd s out h of Wa di Muj i b i n Tr a ns j or da n. The y we r e pa i d t o ke e p t he Ha j j r out e s f r om Ca i r o a nd Da ma s c us s a f e , a nd t o r e f r a i n f r om r obbi ng t he pi l gr i ms . Fr om t i me t o t i me ba t t l e s a nd mi nor wa r s we r e f ought be t we e n t he Empi r e a nd t he t r i be s .

　　Dur i ng t he l a t t e r pa r t of t he 18 ^{t h} a nd t he be gi nni ng of t he 19 ^{t h} c e nt ur y t he Ot t oma n e mpi r e wa s unde r s e ve r e t hr e a t f r om t he Wa hha bi r e l i gi o- pol i t i c a l move me nt . Thi s move me nt , whi c h or i gi na t e d i n Sa udi Ar a bi a e nvi s i one d a pur i f i c a t i on of t he r e l i gi on of I s l a m, a nd t he i r i de a l s we r e i mpos e d by f or c e . The Wa hha bi s s we pt ove r t he pe ni ns ul a , c onve r t i ng or ki l l i ng mus l e ms a nd i mpos i ng t a x on J e ws a nd Chr i s t i a ns , a nd t he n move d nor t h t hr ough Syr i a . I n 1807 t he Ot t oma n e mpi r e c ommi s s i one d Muha mma d Al i , Pa s ha of Egypt , t o de f e a t a nd r out out t he Wa hha bi s . I n

* Sc hool of Ar c ha e ol ogy , Cl a s s i c s a nd Egypt ol ogy , Uni ve r s i t y of Li ve r pool , Ha r t l e y Bui l di ng, Li ve r pool L69 3GS

TRI BAL STATES I N HI STORY:

THE EMI RATE OF I BN RASHI D AS A CASE STUDY

Eve l i ne J . va n de r STEEN*

1818 t he Egypt i a n pa s ha t ook a nd s a c ke d t he t own of Di r ’ i yya , t he s e a t of t he I bn Sa ’ ud a nd of t he Wa hha bi powe r . But he di d not s t op t he r e . He a nd hi s s on I br a hi m Pa s ha move d on t o t a ke c ont r ol of t he r e gi on t he ms e l ve s . Be t we e n 1831 a nd 1841 t he y r ul e d Syr i a , unt i l t he Ot t oma ns , wi t h t he he l p of t he we s t e r n i mpe r i a l powe r s de f e a t e d t he Egypt i a n pa s ha s a nd dr ove t he m ba c k i nt o Egypt . 　　As a r e s ul t of t hi s a nd ot he r t hr e a t s t o t he i r powe r t he Ot t oma n gove r nme nt i mpl e me nt e d a s e r i e s of r e f or ms , known a s t he ‘ Ta nz i ma t ’ . The c or r upt a dmi ni s t r a t i on wa s r e pl a c e d by a s ys t e m of c i vi l s e r va nt s , t a x r e f or ms we r e i mpos e d a nd s e t t l e me nt a nd a gr i c ul t ur e e nc our a ge d i n a n e f f or t t o ge t mor e c ont r ol ove r t he be doui n popul a t i on. The e f f e c t s of t he s e r e f or ms we r e mos t l y f e l t i n t he c oa s t a l r e gi ons of Le ba non a nd Pa l e s t i ne , muc h l e s s i n t he i nl a nds , whe r e t he Ke r a k a r e a a nd e ve r yt hi ng s out h of i t , r e ma i ne d l a r ge l y una f f e c t e d unt i l 1893. On t he Ar a bi a n pe ni ns ul a l oc a l powe r s s t i l l vi e d f or he ge mony , i nvol vi ng a nd t r a ns f or mi ng t he l oc a l mos a i c of t r i be s a nd t r i ba l c onf e de r a t i ons . One of t he s e l oc a l powe r s wa s t he e mi r a t e of Ha yi l , l e d by t he I bn Ra s hi d f a mi l y . The hi s t or y of t he r i s e a nd de c l i ne of t hi s e mi r a t e i s t he s ubj e c t of t hi s pa pe r . I t e me r ge d out of t he t r i ba l c onf e de r a t i on of Sha mma r , a nd dur i ng i t s e xi s t e nc e t he t r i ba l s oc i a l or ga ni z a t i on r e ma i ne d a de t e r mi ni ng f a c t or i n t he pol i t i c a l , e c onomi c a nd s oc i a l l i f e of i t s s ubj e c t s . The r e f or e i t i s s ugge s t e d he r e t ha t t he Emi r a t e of I bn Ra s hi d c a n t hr ow l i ght on t he e me r ge nc e a nd de ve l opme nt of t r i ba l s t a t e s i n t he I r on Age , s uc h a s Moa b, Ammon a nd Edom, a nd pe r ha ps a l s o I s r a e l a nd J uda h.

Shor t hi s t or y of t he e mi r at e of t he Shammar

The e mi r a t e of I bn Ra s hi d e me r ge d f r om t he t r i ba l c onf e de r a t i on of t he Sha mma r . The Sha mma r , l i ke ma ny t r i be s t ha t e nt e r e d t he Ar a bi a n s ubc ont i ne nt ove r t i me , or i gi na l l y mi gr a t e d f r om t he Ye me n, pos s i bl y i n t he 9 ^{t h} c e nt ur y AD ( a l Ra s he e d 1991; Wa l l i n 1854–55/ 1979: 79) .

　　The l a nd i n whi c h t he y s e t t l e d c ons i s t e d of t wo c ha i ns of gr a ni t e mount a i ns , oppos i t e e a c h ot he r : J e be l Aga a nd J e be l Se l ma , of t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s t he ‘ Two mount a i ns ’ .

　　I t wa s a l r e a dy i nha bi t e d by t wo ot he r t r i be s : t he Qa i s a nd t he Ta y . Or i gi na l l y t he Sha mma r s ha r e d t he Two Mount a i ns wi t h t he Qa i s a nd t he Ta y , but e ve nt ua l l y t he y t ook c ont r ol a nd t he ot he r t wo t r i be s gr a dua l l y di s a ppe a r e d. I n t he c our s e of t he f ol l owi ng c e nt ur i e s t he t r i be e xpa nde d, i n t he 17 ^{t h} c e nt ur y i t s pl i t up, a nd one gr oup move d nor t h t o Me s opot a mi a i n s e a r c h of pa s t ur e . The ot he r gr oup r e ma i ne d i n t he J e be l Sha mma r . At t he e nd of t he 18 ^{t h} c e nt ur y , i n r e s pons e t o t he gr owi ng t hr e a t of Wa hha bi s m a not he r s e c t i on of t he Sha mma r j oi ne d t he e a r l i e r nor t he r n s e c t i on. The s e we r e t he Suf uk a nd t he Za ka r i t , who e a r l i e r us e d t o mi gr a t e nor t h on a s e a s ona l ba s i s ( Wa l l i n 1854–55/ 1979: 73; Bur c kha r dt 1830, 167, 176–7) . The nor t he r n Sha mma r l i ve d a s pa s t or a l i s t s a nd f a r me r s . The y ma i nt a i ne d c ont a c t wi t h t he s out he r n Sha mma r , a nd e ve r y ye a r a ma j or c a me l c a r a va n t r a ve l l e d nor t h f r om Ha yi l t o t he Sha mma r i n t he nor t h br i ngi ng ba c k r i c e a nd ot he r goods .

　　The hi s t or y of t he r i s e a nd f a l l of t he e mi r a t e ha s be e n t ol d by s e ve r a l t r a ve l l e r s ( Wa l l i n 1854–55/ 1979: 66–68, Dought y 1921/ I I , 13–18, Pa l gr a ve 1873, 84–94, Bl unt 1880/ 2002: 99, 194–206; s e e a l s o Oppe nhe i m 1952: 37–45 a nd a l - Ra s he e d 1991 wi t h r e f e r e nc e s ) .

　　The Sha mma r c onf e de r a c y c ons i s t e d of f our i nde pe nde nt t r i be s : t he Si nj a r a , t he Abda , t he As l a m a nd t he Tuma m. The s e we r e s ubdi vi de d i nt o c l a ns or s ubt r i be s a nd t he r e we r e a l s o s e ve r a l a l l i e d t r i be s s uc h a s t he Mut a i r a nd Sube i ’ . Anot he r a l l i e d t r i be , t he Be ni Ta mi m, we r e de s c e nda nt s of onc e powe r f ul t r i be t ha t pr e da t e d t he Sha mma r t r i be i n t he J e be l . The y we r e a gr i c ul t ur a l i s t s , a nd ha d t he i r own vi l l a ge s i n t he Sha mma r t e r r i t or i e s .

　　I n 1836 a c ha nge of l e a de r s hi p t ook pl a c e a mong one of t he t r i be s of t he c onf e de r a t i on: t he Abda .

The l e a de r s hi p of Muha mme d I bn Al i , pa r a mount s he i kh of t he Abda , wa s c ha l l e nge d by hi s c ous i n

Abda l l a h I bn Ra s hi d. Abda l l a h wa s e xi l e d f r om Abda t e r r i t or y a s a c ons e que nc e . He l e f t a nd f ound

r e f uge i n Ri a dh, wi t h t he I bn Sa ud f a mi l y , t he l e a de r s of t he Wa hha bi move me nt . The Wa hha bi

move me nt ha d be e n s e ve r e l y we a ke ne d by t he t a ke - ove r of Muha mma d Al i a nd I br a hi m of Egypt ,

but t he y ha d r e ga i ne d a c e r t a i n a mount of powe r on t he pe ni ns ul a , a nd t he Sha mma r we r e t r i but a r y

t o t he m. One da y , whe n Abda l l a h wa s out hunt i ng wi t h Fa i s a l , t he s on of t he I bn Sa ud l e a de r , a c oup t ook pl a c e i n Ri a dh, a nd t he s he i kh wa s mur de r e d. Tha nks t o t he he l p of Abda l l a h, Fa i s a l ma na ge d t o de pos e t he us ur pe r , a nd r e ga i n t he l e a de r s hi p of t he I bn Sa ud. Out of gr a t i t ude , Fa i s a l I bn Sa ud de c l a r e d Abda l l a h I bn Ra s hi d t he Sha ykh Mus ha yye kh ( pa r a mount s he i kh) of t he Abda t r i be , i ns t e a d of I bn Al i . Thi s , of c our s e , di d not me a n t ha t I bn Al i woul d s ubmi t hi s l e a de r s hi p t o Abda l l a h, me r e l y t ha t I bn Sa ud woul d s uppor t Abda l l a h i f / whe n he ma de a bi d f or l e a de r s hi p.

　　Abda l l a h I bn Ra s hi d now r e t ur ne d t o hi s home c ount r y a nd s t a r t e d t o c ol l e c t s uppor t e r s wi t h whom he e ve nt ua l l y ma na ge d t o de pos e I bn Al i a nd ga i n l e a de r s hi p of t he Abda .

　　He wa s a n a mbi t i ous ma n, a nd he i mme di a t e l y s t a r t e d t o e xpa nd t he powe r of t he Abda . I n a r e l a t i ve l y s hor t pe r i od he ma na ge d t o r a l l y not onl y t he Abda be hi nd hi m, but a l s o t he ot he r Sha mma r t r i be s , t he Si nj a r a , t he As l a m a nd t he Tuma n. Thus he c ha nge d t he s t r uc t ur e of t he c onf e de r a t i on, whi c h now ha d a l e a di ng t r i be , a nd a pa r a mount s he i kh, s ome t hi ng t he y ha d not ha d be f or e . 　　Abda l l a h di e d i n 1847. He wa s s uc c e e de d by hi s s on Ta l a l wi t hout a ny oppos i t i on, a nd wi t h t he s uppor t of t he popul a t i on of Ha yi l . Ta l a l ’ s r ul e e f f e c t i ve l y c ha nge d t he s t r uc t ur e of t he t r i ba l a l l i a nc e t ha t hi s f a t he r ha d f or ge d, i nt o a s t a t e - l i ke s t r uc t ur e . He a l s o c ha nge d t he t i t l e of hi s of f i c e t o a mi r . He wa s s t i l l s he i kh of t he Abda , but t he t i t l e a mi r r e f e r r e d t o hi s l e a de r s hi p ove r t he whol e c onf e de r a t i on. Abda l l a h ha d a l r e a dy be e n r e c ogni z e d a s t he l e a de r of t he c onf e de r a t i on, but now t hi s l e a de r s hi p wa s f or ma l i z e d, a nd t he Ra s hi di s r e c ogni z e d a s t he l e a di ng f a mi l y .

　　Ta l a l f i ni s he d t he bui l di ng of t he Ba r z a n pa l a c e s t a r t e d by t he I bn Al i a nd c ont i nue d by hi s f a t he r , a nd he e nc our a ge d i nt e r na t i ona l t r a de , a nd c onc e nt r a t e d i t i n Ha yi l . Thi s wa s gr e a t l y s t i mul a t e d by hi s l i be r a l a t t i t ude . He e nc our a ge d not onl y Shi i t e mus l i ms but a l s o J e ws a nd Chr i s t i a ns t o s e t t l e a nd t r a de i n Ha yi l ( a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 57–58; Pa l gr a ve 1873: 93; Mus i l 1928: 239) . He r e bui l t s e t t l e me nt s out s i de Ha yi l , a nd e xpa nde d hi s domi ni ons , not onl y by c onque s t , but a l s o t hr ough hi s l i be r a l pol i t i c s a nd t he pr os pe r i t y a nd pe a c e of hi s gove r nme nt , whi c h e nc our a ge d ot he r t r i be s a nd t owns t o a l l y t he ms e l ve s t o t he m ( Pa l gr a ve 1873: 56–7, 129) – a pr oc e s s t ha t wa s gr e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d by t he t yr a nni c a l pol i t i c s of t he Wa hha bi . Tr i be s a nd t owns woul d ‘ vot e wi t h t he i r f e e t ’ , c hoos e unde r whos e pr ot e c t i on t he y wa nt e d t o be , by s i mpl y pa yi ng or wi t hhol di ng t r i but e , a nd ma ny pr e f e r r e d t he Ra s hi di l e a de r s .

　　Suc c e s s i on wa s f i r ml y e s t a bl i s he d wi t hi n t he Ra s hi d f a mi l y , but a pa r t f r om t ha t , t he r e we r e no r ul e s . Al - Ra s he e d ha s t r i e d t o e s t a bl i s h pa t t e r ns pr e f e r r i ng hor i z ont a l or ve r t i c a l s uc c e s s i on l i ne s ( a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 71–72) . Howe ve r , t he s uc c e s s i on hi s t or y of t he Ra s hi di s s hows t ha t t he onl y c l e a r r ul e s t ha t a ppl i e d we r e t ha t s uc c e s s i on wa s wi t hi n t he Abda l l a h l i ne of t he Ra s hi d f a mi l y , a nd t ha t a ny s uc c e s s or ne e de d t he s uppor t f r om t he Sha mma r t r i be s . Be c a us e of t hi s , s uc c e s s i on c oul d be c ome a bl oody a f f a i r , whi c h wa s e s pe c i a l l y c l e a r whe n Ta l a l di e d i n 1868.

　　He wa s s uc c e e de d by hi s br ot he r Mi t a b, who wa s mur de r e d wi t hi n a ye a r by Ta l a l ’ s e l de s t s on, Ba nda r . Ma ny me mbe r s of t he f a mi l y f l e d Ha yi l , a nd we nt t o Ri ya dh, t he Wa hha bi / Sa udi c a pi t a l , whi c h of f e r e d t he m r e f uge .

　　Anot he r br ot he r of Ta l a l ’ s , Moha mma d, wa s a c a r a va n l e a de r be t we e n Ha yi l a nd I r a q. I n t hi s c a pa c i t y he ma na ge d t o ga i n t he s uppor t of bot h t he t owns me n ( who we r e i nt e r e s t e d i n t he r e ve nue s of t he i nt e r na t i ona l t r a de ) a nd t he noma di c popul a t i on, who ha d a n i nt e r e s t i n t he pr ovi s i oni ng of t he t r a de , by pr ovi di ng c a me l s , a nd r e c e i vi ng t r i but e . Thr ough hi s c ons i de r a bl e mi l i t a r y s ki l l s , Moha mma d c oul d gua r a nt e e t he s a f e t y of t he t r a di ng c a r a va ns . Thus he a c qui r e d we a l t h, a s we l l a s wi de s uppor t a mong t he popul a t i on, a nd whe n he c a me ba c k f r om one of hi s j our ne ys , he mude r e d Ba nda r , a nd pr onounc e d hi ms e l f a mi r . He pr oc e e de d by ki l l i ng pr a c t i c a l l y a l l t he ma l e me mbe r s of t he f a mi l y , pos s i bl e c ont e nde r s f or t he t hr one .

　　Moha mma d’ s r ul e wa s t he l onge s t i n t he hi s t or y of t he Sha mma r e mi r a t e , l a s t i ng f r om 1869–

1897, whe n he di e d of na t ur a l c a us e s . I t wa s a l s o t he pe r i od of t he gr e a t e s t e xpa ns i on of t he e mi r a t e .

Moha mma d i nc or por a t e d mos t of Ne j d, i nc l udi ng t he Sa udi t e r r i t or y wi t h t he c a pi t a l Ri ya dh, a nd

t o t he nor t h e xpa nde d t owa r ds J a uf , whi l e e ve n Pa l myr a pa i d t r i but e t o t he Ra s hi di s ( Mus i l 1928:

243) . Unde r Ta l a l a nd Muha mma d t he oa s i s of Ha yi l gr e w i nt o one of t he l a r ge s t t r a de c e nt r e s of t he r e gi on.

　　Moha mma d ha d a ppoi nt e d a s uc c e s s or , hi s ne phe w Abde l - Az i z , t he s on of Mi t a b who wa s mur de r e d by Ba nda r . He ha d a dopt e d Abde l - Az i z a nd pr e pa r e d hi m f or t he t hr one . Pe r ha ps a s a r e s ul t of t hi s , t he s uc c e s s i on we nt s moot hl y .

　　I t wa s howe ve r ha r d f or Abde l - Az i z t o ma i nt a i n t he e xpa ns i on of t he e mi r a t e t ha t hi s unc l e ha d e f f e c t e d. The Sa udi s ha d f l e d t o Kuwa yt , whe r e t he i r c l a i ms we r e s uppor t e d by t he r ul i ng Sa ba h f a mi l y . I n 1902 t he y ma na ge d t o r e c a pt ur e Ri ya dh, a nd i n 1906 Abde l - Az i z wa s ki l l e d i n a ba t t l e a ga i ns t t he m.

　　He wa s s uc c e e de d by hi s s on Mi t a b. Howe ve r , Mi t a b’ s s uc c e s s i on wa s not s uppor t e d by t he Uba yd br a nc h of t he Ra s hi di f a mi l y , who c omma nde d t he s uppor t of a ma j or i t y of t he Sha mma r . He wa s mur de r e d by Sul t a n i bn Ha mud i bn Uba yd, a nd t he e mi r a t e r e ve r t e d f or a s hor t whi l e t o t he Uba yd br a nc h. By t hi s t i me t he de c l i ne ha d s e t i n. Sul t a n t r i e d t o f ur t he r e xpa nd hi s t e r r i t or y ( De ve y 1907, quot e d by a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 63) , but i n f a c t he l os t s e ve r a l di s t r i c t s . He wa s mur de r e d by hi s br ot he r s , a nd a bl oody s t r uggl e f or t he s uc c e s s i on f ol l owe d. The c ont i nui ng wa r wi t h t he Sa udi s , t he pol i t i c a l bi c ke r i ng a mong t he c ont e nde r s f or t he t hr one , a nd t he f a c t t ha t r e ve nue s of bot h t he t r a de a nd t he Ha j j we r e de c l i ni ng be c a us e of t he c ons t r uc t i on of t he Hi j a z a nd Ba ghda d r a i l wa ys , e ve nt ua l l y br ought a bout t he e nd of t he e mi r a t e . The f i r s t Wor l d Wa r wa s t he de a t h bl ow t o t he powe r of t he I bn Ra s hi d. I n 1921 t he y we r e e xpe l l e d out of Ha yi l , a nd t ha t wa s t he e nd of t he i r e mi r a t e .

The c onc e pt of t r i bal s t at e or ki ngdom Tr ai t s of t r i bal s t at e s

I n or de r t o ‘ s t r e a ml i ne ’ t he di s c us s i on a bout t r i ba l s t a t e f or ma t i on, La bi a nc a ( 1999) ha s t e nt a t i ve l y f or mul a t e d a numbe r of f e a t ur e s whi c h he be l i e ve s a r e s a l i e nt f or t r i ba l ki ngdoms i n t he I r on Age . Hi s f r a me of r e f e r e nc e wa s t he I r on Age ki ngdom of Ammon, but t he s e t r a i t s ha ve be e n e qua l l y a ppl i e d t o ot he r pol i t i e s i n t he r e gi on s uc h a s Moa b ( Rout l e dge , va n de r St e e n a nd Sme l i k 2007) a nd Edom ( Bi e nkows ki a nd va n de r St e e n 2001) .

　　I n or de r t o unde r s t a nd how a nd why t he s e t r i ba l ki ngdoms c a me a bout a nd f unc t i one d i n a nc i e nt s oc i e t y , i t i s e s s e nt i a l t o a na l ys e t he pr oc e s s t ha t c r e a t e d t he m. Pol i t i c a l e nt i t i e s ( or ‘ pol i t i e s ’ ) mus t be s e e n a s a pr oc e s s i n t i me , i n whi c h pol i t i c a l , e c onomi c a nd s oc i a l e l e me nt s of or ga ni z a t i on c ha nge i n r e a c t i on t o i nt e r na l a nd e xt e r na l de ve l opme nt s , a nd a ny na me gi ve n t o t he s e pol i t i c a l e nt i t i e s , s uc h a s t r i be , c hi e f dom, ( e a r l y , t r i ba l , s e gme nt a r y) s t a t e , i s onl y a c oa r s e r e f l e c t i on of t he pol i t i c a l r e a l i t y or r e a l i t i e s i t r e pr e s e nt s . I f ‘ St a t e ’ r e f e r s t o t he l e ve l of pol i t i c a l or ga ni z a t i on, ‘ t r i ba l ’ r e f e r s t o t he s oc i a l or ga ni z a t i on t ha t f or ms t he bui l di ng bl oc ks f or t he pol i t i c a l s t r uc t ur e . No t wo t r i ba l s t a t e s wi l l l ook t he s a me , or ha ve t he s a me c ombi na t i on of t r a i t s . The ‘ t r a i t l i s t ’ t he r e f or e i s a s t a r t i ng poi nt , not a de f i ni t i on. The gr a dua l pr oc e s s t ha t l e a ds f r om a ba s i c a l l y t r i ba l s oc i e t y , t o a t r i ba l s t a t e or ki ngdom, f ol l ows ma ny di f f e r e nt r oa ds . I f t he r e i s a c ont i nuum, or pe r ha ps a ‘ s t e ppe d’

c ont i nuum f r om a t ypi c a l ‘ t r i ba l ’ ( e ga l i t a r i a n, gr oup or i e nt e d, wi t h l i mi t e d powe r f or t he l e a de r ) s oc i e t y t owa r ds mor e c ompl e xi t y a nd i nt e gr a t i on ( t ypi c a l f e a t ur e s of ki ngdoms or s t a t e s ) , t he t hi ng t o r e me mbe r i s t ha t dur i ng t hi s pr oc e s s t he t r i ba l s oc i e t y di d not s he d i t s ba s i c s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e , whi c h r e ma i ne d i nt a c t dur i ng t he t r a ns f or ma t i on, a nd i n f a c t be c a me i nc or por a t e d i n i t , a n e s s e nt i a l pa r t of t he ‘ ne w’ s t a t e . Be c a us e of t hi s , be c a us e t he e s s e nt i a l e l e me nt s of t he t r i ba l s oc i e t y we r e s t i l l pr e s e nt , i t wa s a l wa ys pos s i bl e f or t he s t a t e t o di s i nt e gr a t e ba c k i nt o i t s or i gi na l c ompone nt s , t he t r i be s .

- a t r i ba l ki ngdom woul d c oa l e s c e out of a t r i ba l a l l i a nc e us ua l l y unde r i nf l ue nc e of out s i de

pr e s s ur e or t hr e a t .

- The r i s e of a s t r ong ma n a t t he r i ght mome nt , who i s a c c e pt a bl e t o a l l t he t r i be s .

- t he pr e - mona r c hi c a l t r i ba l s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e woul d not be e xt i ngui s he d by t he r i s e of ki ngs . A ‘ c l a s s - ba s e d’ s oc i e t y , wi t h a n ur ba n c l a s s c ont r ol l i ng a ‘ r ur a l c l a s s ’ woul d not e vol ve . - Ba s i c f e a t ur e s of t r i ba l s oc i e t y woul d c ont i nue t o e xi s t , s uc h a s t he a s s oc i a t i on of t r i be s wi t h

t he i r t r a di t i ona l t e r r i t or i e s ; a n e c onomy t ha t c ont i nue s t o t a ke pl a c e on t he s c a l e of t he i ndi vi dua l t r i be s ; a nd ove r l a ppi ng of t e r r i t or i e s a mong t r i be s f or di f f e r e nt e c onomi c pur pos e s . - The i nt r a - a nd i nt e r t r i ba l s oc i a l or ga ni z a t i on woul d be us e d a nd a da pt e d i n or de r t o

a c c ommoda t e t he bur e a uc r a c y t ha t wa s t he r e s ul t of t he ki ngdom s t r uc t ur e .

- Tr i ba l hi nt e r l a nds woul d be a dmi ni s t e r e d f r om f or t i f i e d c e nt r e s , but mos t pe opl e woul d s t i l l be l i vi ng i n t he hi nt e r l a nds , i n t he i r own t r a di t i ona l t r i ba l t e r r i t or y .

- Powe r s t r uc t ur e s wi t hi n t he ki ngdom we r e he t e r a r c hi c a l r a t he r t ha n hi e r a r c hi c a l : t he r e c oul d be s e ve r a l powe r ba s e s on t he s a me l e ve l , ba s i ng t he i r powe r on di f f e r e nt r e s our c e s , s uc h a s e c onomi c , r e l i gi ous or pol i t i c a l r e s our c e s .

- The ma i nt e na nc e of a c e nt r a l mi l i t i a , t o pr ot e c t t he i nt e r e s t s of t he ki ngdom a s a whol e . - A s t r ong e c onomy , t o gua r a nt e e t he i nde pe nde nc e of t he s t a t e , a nd t o pr ovi de t he me a ns t o

e xe c ut e t he pr e s t i ge pr oj e c t s , a nd t o buy t he c oope r a t i on of t he t r i be s .

The Ras hi di e mi r at e as a t r i bal s t at e

The s hor t hi s t or y of t he Ra s hi di e mi r a t e a bove , i l l us t r a t e s t he pr oc e s s of t he t r i ba l s t a t e i n a numbe r of f e a t ur e s .

Ext e r nal pol i t i c al pr e s s ur e l e ads t o a hi ghe r l e v e l of i nt e gr at i on and pol i t i c al or gani z at i on

The Ar a bi a n pe ni ns ul a wa s i n a s t a t e of t ur moi l a s a r e s ul t of t he powe r s t r uggl e be t we e n t he Wa hha bi s , Muha mma d Al i , pa s ha of Egypt , a nd t he Ot t oma n e mpi r e . Fr om t he be gi nni ng of t he Wa hha bi t e e xpa ns i on, t he Sha mma r we r e t r a di t i ona l l y oppos e d t o t he m ( Oppe nhe i m 1939: 134) , a nd t he i r s ubj e c t i on t o t he Wa hha bi s wa s t he r e s ul t of a numbe r of de f e a t s i n ba t t l e . I n 1818 Muha mma d Al i ha d de f e a t e d t he Wa hha bi s a nd s a c ke d t he i r home t own of Di r ’ i yya h. Howe ve r , s ome 15 ye a r s l a t e r t he Sa udi l e a de r s ha d r e ga i ne d muc h of t he i r f or me r powe r , a nd gove r ne d t he pe ni ns ul a f r om t he i r ne w c a pi t a l , Ri ya dh. Ma ny of t he t r i be s on t he pe ni ns ul a , e i t he r out of f e a r or oppor t uni s m, s wor e a l l e gi a nc e t o t he Sa udi s . Thos e who di dn’ t we r e r a i de d a nd f or c e d i nt o s ubmi s s i on. Thi s gr owi ng powe r of t he Sa udi pol i t y c a us e d r e s i s t a nc e a mong va r i ous of t he t r i be s , a mong whi c h we r e gr oups of t he Sha mma r . At t he s a me t i me bot h t he Ot t oma n e mpi r e a nd t he Egypt i a ns we r e pr e s s i ng i nt o t he pe ni ns ul a t o r e i ns t a t e t he i r powe r ( s e e Ba i l y Wi nde r 1965 f or a ge ne r a l ove r vi e w of powe r r e l a t i ons on t he Pe ni ns ul a i n t he 19 ^{t h} c e nt ur y) . Ra s he e d ( 1991: 46–7) s ugge s t s t ha t i t wa s t hi s t hr e a t whi c h dr e w t he va r i ous Sha mma r t r i be s t oge t he r a nd ma de t he m c ons e nt t o one ove r a l l l e a de r s hi p.

Abdal l ah: t he St r ong Man

The ma n who a c qui r e d t ha t ove r a l l l e a de r s hi p wa s Abda l l a h I bn Ra s hi d, a c ous i n of t he s he i kh of t he Abda . He ha d ga i ne d t he s uppor t of Fa i s a l I bn Sa ’ ud, t he l e a de r of t he Wa hha bi i n Ri a dh, but i t wa s hi s pe r s ona l qua l i t i e s t ha t ga i ne d hi m t he l e a de r s hi p of t he Abda ¹ . “ Hi s i nt r e pi di t y a nd ma nl i ne s s , hi s s t r i c t j us t i c e , of t e n i nc l i ni ng t o s e ve r i t y , hi s unf l i nc hi ng a dhe r e nc e t o hi s wor d a nd pr omi s e , of a br e a c h of whi c h he wa s ne ve r known t o ha ve r e nde r e d hi ms e l f gui l t y; a nd, a bove a l l , t o hi s uns ur pa s s e d hos pi t a l i t y a nd be ne vol e nc e t owa r ds t he poor , of whom, i t wa s a we l l - known t hi ng,

1 Wi nde r ( 1965: 101–105) , l a r ge l y ba s i ng hi ms e l f on t he hi s t or i a n Da r i I bn Ra s hi d, gi ve s a n e xt e ns i ve de s c r i pt i on of t he t a ke - ove r

of Ha yi l by I bn Ra s hi d.

none e ve r we nt unhe l pe d f r om hi s door ” . ( Wa l l i n 1854–55/ 1979: 68) ² . The r e we r e a l s o hi s r e put a t i on f or pr owe s s i n ba t t l e , a nd pr oba bl y t he f a c t t ha t he wa s s uppor t e d by hi s br ot he r Uba yd, who wa s a s br a ve a s ol di e r , but mor e c unni ng, mor e of a pol i t i c i a n, a nd wi t h l e s s c ha r i s ma ( Wi nde r 1965:

105; 240) , a nd who wa s c ont e nt t o s uppor t a nd pr oba bl y i nf l ue nc e hi s br ot he r ba c ks t a ge ³ .

　　Af t e r t a ki ng ove r t he l e a de r s hi p, I bn Ra s hi d r e ma i ne d l oya l t o hi s Sa udi a l l i e s , but a t t he s a me t i me he be ga n t o f or ge t he Sha mma r c onf e de r a t i on i nt o a mor e i nt e gr a t e d s t r uc t ur e . He s t r e s s e d t he c a pi t a l r ol e of Ha yi l by f ur t he r bui l di ng t he pa l a c e i n t he Ba r z a n, t ha t wa s s t a r t e d, by hi s I bn Al i pr e de c e s s or , a nd ot he r ma j or bui l di ng pr oj e c t s . He a l s o l a i d t he ba s e f or a s t a ndi ng a r my , a nd us e d i t t o e ns ur e s a f e t y on t he r oa ds . He de mons t r a t e d hi s own mi l i t a r y pr owe s s i n r a i ds on t he Ana z e , i n whi c h t he ot he r t r i be s we r e i nvi t e d t o t a ke pa r t – i n r e t ur n f or a pa r t i n t he boot y . The l ong- l a s t i ng f e ud wi t h t he Ana z e ha d i t s or i gi ns i n r e gul a r r a i ds by t hi s t r i be i nt o Sha mma r t e r r i t or y , but i t wa s e nha nc e d by t he 1838 Sha mma r c onque s t of J a uf , whi c h l a y i n Ana z e t e r r i t or y . Thi s , a nd a not he r l ong l a s t i ng f e ud wi t h t he t r i be s of Qa s i m ( s out h of Sha mma r ) , wa s t he i nc e nt i ve f or a s e r i e s of r a i ds a nd ba t t l e s , i n whi c h a l l t he Sha mma r t r i be s pa r t i c i pa t e d, a nd we r e i nva r i a bl y vi c t or i ous ( Wi nde r 1965: 134, 154) . The s e ba t t l e s di d muc h t o c e me nt t he c onf e de r a t i on.

　　Le a de r s hi p i n Ne a r Ea s t e r n t r i be s wa s a c ombi na t i on of a s c r i be d a nd a c hi e ve d qua l i t i e s . A s he i kh wa s c hos e n f r om one l e a di ng f a mi l y , a nd t he s he i khdom us ua l l y r e ma i ne d wi t hi n t ha t f a mi l y . A c ha nge i n t he l e a di ng f a mi l y wa s a ma j or , a nd us ua l l y bl oody e ve nt ⁴ . Whi l e t he l e a de r ha d t o c ome f r om t he l e a di ng f a mi l y , wi t hi n t he l e a di ng f a mi l y t he s uc c e s s i on wa s l e s s c l e a r : a s he i kh c oul d be s uc c e e de d by hi s s on ( not ne c e s s a r i l y t he e l de s t ) or hi s br ot he r , or a not he r f a mi l y me mbe r a l t oge t he r ( a l t hough a s uc c e s s i on f ur t he r r e move d t ha n a s on or a br ot he r c oul d be s e e n a s a t a ke - ove r , a nd s ome t i me s c a us e d t e ns i on) . So t he hi e r a r c hy of l e a de r s hi p wa s c r ys t a l l i z e d a s f a r a s t he f a mi l y l e ve l , but not t o t he l e ve l of t he a c t ua l s uc c e s s or . Thi s r e ma i ne d a n i s s ue i n t he I bn Ra s hi d dyna s t y unt i l t he l a s t da ys of t he e mpi r e , a nd c ont r i but e d t o i t s downf a l l .

　　The c hoi c e of t he a c t ua l l e a de r de pe nde d on a c hi e ve d qua l i t i e s : c our a ge a nd pr owe s s i n wa r , i nt e l l i ge nc e ( mos t l y t r oubl e - s hoot i ng qua l i t i e s , a nd t he c a pa bi l i t y t o ke e p t he pe a c e wi t hi n t he t r i be ) , ge ne r os i t y , c ha r i s ma . Ma t e r i a l we a l t h wa s i mpor t a nt i ns of a r a s i t e na bl e d t he l e a de r i n que s t i on t o pr a c t i c e hi s ge ne r os i t y , a n a s pe c t t ha t wa s vi t a l i n a c qui r i ng t he s uppor t of t he l e a de r s of t he c oa l i t i on t r i be s .

　　The s he i khl y f a mi l y of t he Abda we r e t he J a a f a r . Abda l l a h I bn Ra s hi d wa s i bn amm ( pa t e r na l c ous i n) of I bn Al i , s he i kh of t he Abda , s o t he c ha nge i n l e a de r s hi p f r om t he I bn Al i t o t he I bn Ra s hi d di d not , i n f a c t , i nvol ve a c ompl e t e t ur nove r i n t he l e a di ng f a mi l y , s ome t hi ng t ha t ma de t he t r a ns i t i on e a s i e r . The J a a f a r f a mi l y s uppor t e d t he c ha nge of powe r . Abda l l a h ha d t a ke n c a r e of hi s s uc c e s s i on, by a ppoi nt i ng hi s s on Ta l a l a s hi s s uc c e s s or , a n a ppoi nt me nt t ha t wa s s uppor t e d by t he f a mi l y ( a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 57) . Af t e r Ta l a l ’ s de a t h i n 1868, howe ve r , a s t r uggl e br oke out ove r t he s uc c e s s i on. Ta l a l wa s s uc c e e de d by hi s br ot he r Mi t a b, who ha d t he s uppor t of t he f a mi l y , but a f t e r a ye a r Mi t a b wa s ki l l e d by Ta l a l ’ s s on Ba nda r . Ba nda r wa s ki l l e d wi t hi n a ye a r by a not he r br ot he r of Ta l a l , Muha mma d. Muha mma d ha d ma de a c a r e e r a s a c a r a va n l e a de r , a nd bui l t up a ne t wor k wi t h bot h t he noma di c a nd t he s e t t l e d s e c t i ons of t he Sha mma r . Hi s c oup wa s s uppor t e d by bot h t he J a a f a r f a mi l y a nd t he Sha mma r t r i be s . Ne ve r t he l e s s he t ook t he pr e c a ut i on t o mur de r t he c ompl e t e

2 Pa l gr a ve ’ s de s c r i pt i on of Abda l l a h’ s r i s e t o powe r a l r e a dy ha s a s pe c t s of a he r oi c e pi c , f e a t ur i ng mi r a c ul ous r e s c ue s f r om de a t h a nd he r oi c pr owe s s , de mons t r a t i ng how or a l t r a di t i ons c r e a t e he r oe s .

3 Se ve r a l ve r y di f f e r e nt r e por t s ha ve be e n gi ve n of Uba yd, a mong ot he r s by Pa l gr a ve ( 1873: 189) , who di s mi s s e d hi m a s a f a na t i c a nd a t r a i t or , a nd by Bl unt ( 1880/ 2002: 194) , a c c or di ng t o whom Uba yd wa s t he ‘ pr i nc i pa l he r o of t he Sha mma r t r a di t i on’ . 4 Whe n l e a de r s hi p wi t hi n t he t r i ba l c onf e de r a t i on of t he Ti a ha c ha nge d f r om t he I bn At i ye h t o t he Hukuk, t hi s wa s a c c ompa ni e d by

t he mur de r of mos t of t he me mbe r s of t he pr e vi ous l e a di ng f a mi l y ( Oppe nhe i m 1943: 1 1 1) . The t a ke ove r of l e a de r s hi p a mong t he

Huwa yt a t a t t he e nd of t he 19

c e nt ur y by t he Abu Ta yyi c a us e d ma j or t e ns i on a mong t he Huwa yt a t i n La wr e nc e ’ s a r my dur i ng

t he f i r s t Wor l d Wa r .

Ta l a l br a nc h of t he f a mi l y . ( Dought y pr e s e nt s t hi s a s a n i ne vi t a bl e bl ood r e ve nge , whi c h wa s f ol l owe d by t he ne c e s s a r y e xt i nc t i on of ot he r pos s i bl e c ont e nde r s ) . The a s pe c t of pe r s ona l a mbi t i on, a nd t he mur de r s t ha t e ve nt ua l l y be c a me a l mos t a r e gul a r f e a t ur e of t he s uc c e s s i on ( Bl unt 1880/ 2002: 271;

a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 66–74) s e e m t o ha ve be e n pa r t of t he t r a ns i t i on t o a mor e s t a t e - l i ke or ga ni z a t i on, t he r e s ul t of t he i nc r e a s i ng pr e s t i ge of t he pos i t i on of a mi r a s c ompa r e d t o t ha t of a t r i ba l s he i kh.

I n 1906 Abd e l - Az i z wa s s uc c e e de d by hi s s on Mi t a b, but Mi t a b wa s powe r l e s s be c a us e he di d not ha ve t he s uppor t of t he t r i be , a nd he wa s de pos e d by a not he r br a nc h of t he f a mi l y a l t oge t he r : t he Uba yd br a nc h, de s c e nda nt s of t he f i r s t a mi r ’ s br ot he r Uba yd, who ha d ne ve r be f or e ma de a bi d f or t he t hr one . The t r i bal or gani z at i on as pol i t i c al bui l di ng bl oc ks of t he e mi r at e

The Sha mma r we r e a c onf e de r a t i on of f our t r i be s : t he Abda , Si nj a r a , As l a m a nd Tuma n. The y r e f e r r e d t o t he ms e l ve s a s a qabi l a , a t e r m t ha t i n t hi s c a s e c a n be t r a ns l a t e d a s ‘ t r i ba l c onf e de r a t i on’ ⁵ ( a l - Ra s he e d 1991, 18) .

　　De f i ni t i ons of bot h t he wor d ‘ t r i be ’ a nd t he c onc e pt of t r i ba l i s m a bound i n a nt hr opol ogi c a l l i t e r a t ur e ( Pa r ki ns on 2002 ha s de f i ni t i ons i n mos t a r t i c l e s ) . The r e i s , howe ve r , a huge di s c r e pa nc y i n de f i ni t i ons de r i vi ng f r om Ne w Wor l d r e s e a r c h a nd t hos e us e d i n Ne a r Ea s t e r n s t udi e s . The s e di s c r e pa nc i e s ma i nl y de a l wi t h i s s ue s s uc h a s e c onomy/ s ubs i s t e nc e , mobi l i t y , s i z e , a nd c ompl e xi t y of or ga ni z a t i on. The e c onomi c , pol i t i c a l a nd s oc i a l or ga ni z a t i on of Ne a r Ea s t e r n t r i be s ha s be e n de s c r i be d e xt e ns i ve l y by Ei c ke l ma n ( 1981: 85–104) ; La nc a s t e r ( 1981) ; Sa l z ma n ( 2004) a mong ot he r s . Thi s i s not t he pl a c e t o a dd a not he r de f i ni t i on. The r e a r e s e ve r a l t r a i t s t ha t s e e m uni ve r s a l a mong s oc i e t i e s t ha t a r e c ons i de r e d ‘ t r i ba l ’ wor l dwi de , a nd t ha t a l l r e s e a r c he r s s e e m t o a gr e e on.

The s e a r e :

- a s e gme nt a r y s oc i e t y s t r uc t ur e , i n whi c h t he ‘ s e gme nt s ’ a r e ge ne r a l l y f or me d by ki ns hi p or l i ne a ge gr oups or c l a ns . The s e s e gme nt s a r e i nt e gr a t e d i nt o a l a r ge r whol e by me a ns of s oda l i t i e s , ne t wor ks of s ol i da r i t y gr oups t ha t c r os s - c ut t he c l a n s t r uc t ur e a nd ke e p t he c l a ns t oge t he r . The ki ns hi p s t r uc t ur e doe s not ne c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t a c t ua l f a mi l y r e l a t i ons , but c a n be ma ni pul a t e d a nd c ha nge d f or s oc i a l or pol i t i c a l r e a s ons , wi t h t he c ons e nt of t he me mbe r s . - Le a de r s hi p of t he t r i be i s a c ombi na t i on of a s c r i be d qua l i t i e s ( i t us ua l l y r e s i de s wi t hi n a l e a di ng

f a mi l y , f or e xa mpl e ) a nd a c hi e ve d qua l i t i e s .

- The r ul e s of s oc i a l i nt e r a c t i on, bot h wi t hi n t he t r i be a nd be t we e n t r i be s , a r e s t r ongl y de t e r mi ne d by t he c onc e pt of honour .

　　Whi l e t he c onf e de r a t i on wa s known t o t he me mbe r s a s a qabi l a , t he s e pa r a t e t r i be s , t he Abda , Si nj a r a , As l a m a nd Tuma n, we r e known a s as ha’ i r ( s i ng. as hi r a ) ( a l - Ra s he e d 1991, 19–22) . The as hi r a c ons i s t e d of a numbe r of l i ne a ge s or c l a ns , t he hama’ i l ( s i ng. hamul a ) who we r e a s s oc i a t e d i nt o l a r ge r gr oups , ‘ ma xi ma l l i ne a ge uni t s ’ , t he f uk hud ( s i ng. f ak hd ) . The f uk hud , unl i ke e i t he r t he as ha’ i r or t he hama’ i l s e e m t o ha ve be e n t he ba s i c e c onomi c uni t . The y c l a i me d owne r s hi p of we l l s a nd pa s t ur e gr ounds , a nd s ha r e d a was m , a t r i ba l ma r k.

　　Eve r y as hi r a ha d i t s s he i kh, who wa s t he t r i ba l l e a de r a nd who c a me f r om t he l e a di ng l i ne a ge i n t he as hi r a . The l e a de r s of t he Si nj a r a we r e I bn Thuna ya n; of t he As l a m I bn Twa l a ; a nd of t he Tuma n I bn Ti mya t . Unt i l t he c oup by I bn Ra s hi d, t he s he i khs of t he Abda we r e I bn Al i . Thi s c oup ha d f a r - r e a c hi ng c ons e que nc e s f or t he qabi l a , a s i t c ompl e t e l y c ha nge d i t s pol i t i c a l ( but not i t s s oc i a l ) s t r uc t ur e . Unt i l t he n, t he qabi l a ha d no l e a de r . Abda l l a h I bn Ra s hi d wa s t he f i r s t l e a de r of t he whol e qabi l a .

5 Qa bi l a i s s ome t i me s i nt e r pr e t e d a s a c onf e de r a t i on, s ome t i me s a s a ( l a r ge ) t r i be . I n l i ne wi t h s e gme nt a r y l i ne a ge t he or y t he t r i be s

ha ve a ‘ ne s t e d’ s t r uc t ur e , wi t h ‘ t r i be s ’ c ons i s t i ng of ‘ s ubt r i be s ’ , c ons i s t i ng of ‘ c l a ns ’ c ons i s t i ng of f a mi l i e s . Tr i be s c oul d be c ome

pa r t of c onf e de r a t i ons . Thi s or ga ni z a t i on i s f l ui d, a nd t e nds t o c ha nge ove r t i me – t r i be s me r ge i nt o c onf e de r a t i ons t ha t e ve nt ua l l y

c ome t o be s e e n a s t r i be s , a nd vi c e ve r s a , t r i be s gr ow, a nd s pl i t up, s ubt r i be s gr owi ng i nt o t r i be s a nd t r i be s i nt o c onf e de r a t i ons .

　　The as ha’ i r ha d a bond of a l l e gi a nc e , t ha t wa s dor ma nt mos t of t he t i me a nd c ons i s t e d a s a n i de a l r a t he r t ha n a s a pr a c t i c a l pol i c y , but t ha t c oul d be a c t i va t e d whe n c i r c ums t a nc e s r e qui r e d ( J a us s e n 1908: 1 14) . Thi s woul d ge ne r a l l y be i n t i me s of pol i t i c a l or e c onomi c s t r e s s . Pol i t i c a l s t r e s s c oul d be c a us e d by out s i de t hr e a t s , whe n a t r i be wa s a t t a c ke d a nd r a i de d, or i t s t e r r i t or y t hr e a t e ne d. I n s uc h c a s e s t he ot he r t r i be s woul d be r e que s t e d t o a i d t he t hr e a t e ne d t r i be . Or i t c oul d be t he r e s ul t of i nt e r t r i ba l c onf l i c t , whi c h woul d t he n be s e t t l e d pe a c e f ul l y wi t hi n t he t e r ms of t he bond of a l l e gi a nc e . 　　Ec onomi c s t r e s s c oul d be c a us e d by dr ought s , c r op f a i l ur e , s i c kne s s a mong a ni ma l s a nd t he l i ke , i n whi c h c a s e a t r i be c oul d c l a i m e c onomi c s uppor t , or t he us e of a not he r t r i be ’ s we l l s a nd pa s t ur e s ⁶ .

　　Common wa ys t o ma i nt a i n t he bond of a l l e gi a nc e i n ‘ dor ma nt ’ pe r i ods we r e by me a ns of r e f e r e nc e t o a s ha r e d a pi c a l a nc e s t or ( a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 20) , a nd i nt e r ma r r i a ge .

　　The t r i ba l s he i khs , pa r t i c ul a r l y t hos e of t he Sha mma r t r i be s , a l s o r e ma i ne d a ut onomous l e a de r s i n t he i r t e r r i t or i e s , a nd t he a mi r ha d t o c ons ul t wi t h t he m, i f he wa nt e d t he i r s uppor t or t ha t of t he i r t r i be .

　　I n s ome of t he s ubj e c t e d t e r r i t or i e s ( i . e . t e r r i t or i e s be l ongi ng t o c onque r e d t r i be s ) , t he a mi r woul d oc c a s i ona l l y c ha nge a l e a de r of a vi l l a ge , a nd r e pl a c e hi m wi t h s ome one of hi s own c hoi c e , but t hi s a l s o wa s a n e xc e pt i on. Ta i ma , c onque r e d by Ta l a l i bn Ra s hi d, ha d a ‘ r e s i de nt ’ r e pr e s e nt a t i ve of I bn Ra s hi d, but t he gove r nme nt of t he t own wa s l e f t t o t he l oc a l s he i khs ( Dought y 1921/ I : 333–5) . I n J a uf , c onque r e d i n 1838, t he r e wa s s t i l l no Ra s hi di r e pr e s e nt a t i ve i n 1845 ( Wa l l i n 1854–55/ 1979:

31) . Whe n Pa l gr a ve vi s i t e d J a uf i n 1862 ( Pa l gr a ve 1873: 31) , t he r e wa s a gove r nor f r om Ha yi l , a ppoi nt e d by I bn Ra s hi d, Ha mud. But he ha d onl y be e n s e nt t o J a uf i n 1853, a f t e r a nd be c a us e t he t own ha d r e be l l e d a nd be e n r e c ove r e d. Pa l gr a ve a l s o me nt i ons a Ra s hi di - a ppoi nt e d ma yor i n t he vi l l a ge of Fe yd ( Pa l gr a ve 1873: 138) but not e s a t t he s a me t i me t ha t t he ge ne r a l s ys t e m of gove r nme nt of t he s ubj e c t e d doma i ns wa s t o a ppoi nt a l oc a l c hi e f “ f or i t i s onl y i n r a r e i ns t a nc e s a nd f or ve r y pa r t i c ul a r r e a s ons t ha t he a ppoi nt s one of t he c a pi t a l or t he c e nt r a l di s t r i c t t o be pr e f e c t i n a di s t a nt l oc a l i t y” . The s t r ong Ra s hi di c ont r ol of J a uf , whe n Anne a nd Wi l f r e d Bl unt vi s i t e d t he pl a c e i n 1878, wa s r e c e nt , a nd due t o t he f a c t t ha t i t ha d be e n br i e f l y c onque r e d by t he Ot t oma n f or c e s of Da ma s c us , a nd a ga i n r e c ove r e d by t he Ra s hi di s ( Bl unt 1880/ 2002: 1 17–1 19) .

　　Wi nde r obs e r ve d t ha t , c ont r a r y t o t he pol i t i c a l or ga ni z a t i on of Ri ya dh, whi c h wa s a pur e l y r e l i gi ous s t a t e , ‘ t he Ra s hi di gove r nme nt wa s a n e xt e nde d t r i ba l i s m’ ( 1965: 241) . Hi s ma i n a r gume nt i s t ha t i n s pi t e of t he f a c t t ha t t he Sha mma r we r e Wa hha bi ’ s , t he i r t r i ba l c ons c i ous ne s s ove r r ul e d t he i r r e l i gi ous c ons c i ous ne s s .

　　The i nt e gr a t i on of t he s oc i a l or ga ni z a t i on of t he t r a di t i ona l Sha mma r t r i ba l s oc i e t y i nt o t he pol i t i c a l or ga ni z a t i on of a s t a t e r e s t e d on s e ve r a l pi l l a r s .

　　The Ra s hi di a mi r s ma de s ur e t o ma i nt a i n a nd s t r e ngt he n t he bonds wi t h t he s he i khs of t he ot he r Sha mma r s e c t i ons . The s he i khs pa r t i c i pa t e d i n t he r a i ds t ha t t he Ra s hi di or ga ni z e d, a nd we r e gi ve n gi f t s t o buy a nd ma i nt a i n t he i r l oya l t y , a nd t hus t he l oya l t y of t he i r t r i be s . Apa r t f r om t ha t , ma r r i a ge s we r e a r r a nge d t ha t s t r e ngt he ne d t he ne t wor k. Ot he r t r i be s we r e s ubj e c t e d i n t he c our s e of t he e xpa ns i on of t he e mi r a t e , but t he y we r e r ul e d t hr ough t he i r own s he i khs ( Dought y 1921/ I I : 46–47) .

　　The a ddi t i on of a ne w t i t l e , t ha t of ami r , whi c h wa s e f f e c t e d by Ta l a l , t he s e c ond Ra s hi di l e a de r , c a n be s e e n a s a be nc hma r k f or t he c ha nge of c onf e de r a c y t o t r i ba l s t a t e , ma i nl y be c a us e i t wa s a c c e pt e d by t he l e a de r s of t he ot he r t r i be s . Ta l a l di d not s t op be i ng s he i kh of hi s own t r i be , t he

6 Honour vi ol a t i on c oul d be a c a us e f or a c t i va t i ng t he bond of a l l e gi a nc e , a s i n t he c a s e of t he qabi l a of t he I bn Amr on t he Ke r a k

Pl a t e a u, de s c r i be d by Di s s a r d ( 1905: 417) a nd Mus i l ( 1908: 78) . I n t hi s c a s e t he wi f e of Dhi a b, s he i kh of t he I bn Qa i s um, a n I bn

Amr as hi r a , wa s s e xua l l y a s s a ul t e d by a s he i kh f r om a f r i e ndl y t r i be , t he Ha me i de . Thi s i nduc e d I bn Qa i s um t o c a l l i n t he a i d of

a not he r I bn Amr as hi r a , t he I bn Te be t . I n s pi t e of t he f a c t t ha t t he I bn Qa i s um a nd t he I bn Te be t ha d a f e ud a t t ha t mome nt , t he

I bn Te be t f e l t obl i ge d t o a ns we r t he c a l l , a nd a s a r e s ul t t he Ha me i de we r e e xpe l l e d f r om t he Ke r a k Pl a t e a u.

Abda , but he a dde d a l a ye r t o t he hi e r a r c hy of l e a de r s hi p, a nd he now ha d t wo s e pa r a t e but i nt e r l i nke d r ol e s : t ha t of l e a de r of hi s t r i be , t he Abda , a nd t ha t of r e pr e s e nt a t i ve of t he whol e c onf e de r a t i on ( a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 78–9) . The s he i khs of t he ot he r t r i be s c oul d s t i l l wi t hhol d t he i r s uppor t ( a nd di d s o, t owa r ds t he e nd of t he e mi r a t e ) a nd ha d t o be c ons ul t e d, a nd c oa xe d i nt o s uppor t i ng t he a mi r wi t h pr e s e nt s . Thi s i nc r e a s e d t he i mpor t a nc e of ma t e r i a l we a l t h, a nd ga ve t he Ot t oma n gove r nme nt a c ha nc e t o i nc r e a s e i t s i nf l ue nc e wi t h t he Ra s hi di s , by s ubs i di z i ng t he m.

The c ont i nuat i on of bas i c f e at ur e s of t r i bal s oc i e t y : t r i bal t e r r i t or i e s

The t r i ba l t e r r i t or y of t he Sha mma r c ons i s t e d of t he Two Mount a i ns , t he J e be l Aj a a nd t he J e be l Se l ma , t oge t he r t he J e be l Sha mma r , a nd s ome of t he s ur r oundi ng l a nds . The f our Sha mma r t r i be s e a c h ha d t he i r own t e r r i t or y: t ha t of t he Abda c ont a i ne d t he J e be l Aj a , e xt e ndi ng e a s t a nd nor t h of i t , a nd i nc l udi ng s e ve r a l vi l l a ge s a nd oa s e s , t he mos t i mpor t a nt of whi c h wa s t he oa s i s of Ha yi l ; t he Si nj a r a l i ve d t o t he nor t h a nd we s t of t he J e be l Aj a , t he i r t e r r i t or y pa r t l y ove r l a ppi ng wi t h t ha t of t he Abda . Se c t i ons of t he Si nj a r a woul d move nor t h i n s pr i ng, pa s t J a uf a nd s pe nd t he s umme r a nd f a l l i n I r a q. The t e r r i t or y of t he As l a m i nc l ude d J e be l Se l ma wi t h i t s oa s e s a nd vi l l a ge s . The Tuma n c a mpe d f ur t he r nor t h, s e pa r a t e f r om t he ot he r Sha mma r t r i be s , t he i r t e r r i t or y e xt e ndi ng f r om nor t h of t he Da r b Zobe i da i nt o I r a q, a l t hough t he y woul d on oc c a s i on wa nde r s out h, i nt o t he Abda a nd Si nj a r a t e r r i t or y , whe r e t he y e nj oye d pr ot e c t i on ( Oppe nhe i m 1952: 37) . Ove r t i me t he r e ha d be e n c ha nge s i n t he t r i ba l t e r r i t or i e s , s uc h a s whe n t he f i r s t br a nc h of t he Sha mma r move d t o Me s opot a mi a , a nd l a t e r , i n t he 19 ^{t h} c e nt ur y , whe n t he s e c ond br a nc h move d t o j oi n t he f i r s t ( Oppe nhe i m 1952:

37) .

　　At t he he yda y of i t s powe r t he doma i ns of t he e mi r a t e gr e a t l y e xc e e de d t he t r a di t i ona l t e r r i t or y of t he Sha mma r . Abda l l a h I bn Ra s hi d s ubj e c t e d t he oa s i s of J a uf , i n t he nor t hwe s t a nd f or c e d t he m t o pa y z ak a ( t he r e l i gi ous t a x, i mpos e d by t he Wa hha bi s ) ; hi s s on Ta l a l a dde d t he oa s e s of Ta i ma , Kha i ba r , Ha yye t a nd Huwa yye t i n t he Ha r r a t h Kha i ba r , a l l t o t he we s t of t he c or e a r e a of J e be l Sha mma r . Muha mma d I bn Ra s hi d be a t t he Sa ’ udi s a nd e xt e nde d t he doma i ns t o t he e a s t a nd nor t h.

I n hi s da ys t he e mi r a t e r e a c he d t he he i ght of i t s powe r , r ul i ng f r om Ha ur a n a nd Pa l myr a i n t he nor t h t o t he bor de r s of s out h Ar a bi a . The y ma i nt a i ne d good r e l a t i ons hi ps wi t h t he Ot t oma n e mpi r e , t he i r f or ma l ove r l or ds , a l t hough ha r dl y one of s ubmi s s i on. The e mi r a t e r e c ogni z e d t he Ot t oma n s upr e ma c y ma i nl y i n t he Fr i da y pr a ye r s i n t he mos que ( Pa l gr a ve 1873: 55) .

　　The r e wa s , t he r e f or e , a c l e a r di s t i nc t i on be t we e n t he doma i n of t he s t a t e , a nd t he t e r r i t or y of t he t r i be s , whi c h wa s s t r i c t l y ma i nt a i ne d. The doma i ns out s i de t he Sha mma r t e r r i t or i e s we r e t he t e r r i t or i e s of ot he r t r i be s , who we r e s ubj e c t e d t o t he e mi r a t e , pa i d t r i but e , a nd ha d t o a c c e pt t he pr e s e nc e of Sha mma r pol i c e f or c e s a nd s ome t i me s a gove r nor but who we r e , a pa r t f r om t ha t , l e f t t o t he i r own de vi c e s a nd t r i ba l s qua bbl e s ( Dought y 1921/ I I : 32) , a s l ong a s t he y r e ma i ne d l oya l t o t he e mi r a t e . The y we r e t ur ne d i nt o s ubj e c t e d, va s s a l t r i be s . Bot h t he gr owi ng powe r of t he Ra s hi di s a nd t he ha r s h Wa hha bi s m of t he Sa ’ udi s i nduc e d t r i be s t o vol unt a r i l y of f e r t he i r s ubmi s s i on t o I bn Ra s hi d. One c a s e i s de s c r i be d by Dought y ( 1921/ I I : 52) : a s e c t i on of t he Ka ht a n ( f r om Qa s i m) ha d s pl i t of f f r om t he ma i n t r i be , a nd of f e r e d r e pe a t e dl y t o be c ome ‘ Ra s hi d’ s Ar a bs ’ . I bn Ra s hi d, who c ons i de r e d t he Qa s i m t r i be s a s e ne mi e s , r e f us e d, a nd onl y of f e r e d t he m t he us e of hi s pa s t ur e s wi t hout a ny obl i ga t i on: “ we a r e not of you; we wi l l ne i t he r he l p you nor hur t you. ”

　　The domi ni ons r e ma i ne d l oya l pa r t l y be c a us e t he r ul e of t he a mi r s ha d br ought pe a c e a nd s e c ur i t y , a nd pa r t l y out of f e a r . The a mi r s ‘ r ul e d by t he s wor d’ , a nd t he s ubj e c t e d t r i be s ne ve r be c a me r e a l l oya l s ubj e c t s , or s ubmi t t e d t he i r i nhe r e nt i nde pe nde nc e a nd a ut onomy . “ The Be duw a nd oa s i s dwe l l e r s a r e not l i e ge me n ( a s t he y s e e i t ) t o a ny but t he i r na t ur a l s he ykhs ” ( Dought y 1921/ I I : 31) . Tr i bal e c onomy

The Two Mount a i ns a bound i n s pr i ngs , f e d by a n a qui f e r wi t h good wa t e r , a nd i n a ddi t i on t o t he

s pr i ngs we l l s we r e dug t o e xpl oi t i t . Tha nks t o t he wa t e r a nd t he qua l i t y of t he s oi l , t he i nha bi t a nt s

of t he mount a i n c ha i ns we r e l a r ge l y s e l f - s uf f i c i e nt .

　　The Sha mma r c onf e de r a t i on ha d a mul t i - s our c e e c onomy , s uppor t e d by t hr e e pi l l a r s : pa s t or a l i s m ( bot h s he e p / goa t s a nd c a me l s ) , a gr i c ul t ur e ( mos t l y da t e s ) , a nd t r a de .

- Pa s t or a l i s m wa s a n i mpor t a nt a s pe c t of t he e c onomy . Ca me l s we r e us e d bot h by t he f a r me r s i n f a r mi ng, a nd f or t he t r a de . As a l a r ge s e gme nt of t he Sha mma r ha d move d t o Me s opot a mi a , t he r e we r e e xt e ns i ve t r a de r e l a t i ons wi t h t he nor t h, f or whi c h ma ny c a me l s we r e ne e de d.

Wa l l i n de s c r i be s how s e t t l e d me mbe r s of t he Ar ma l ( a Si nj a r a s ubt r i be , Oppe nhe i m 1952:

49) owne d l a r ge c a me l he r ds , whi c h t he y he r de d out wi t h “ t he i r noma di c br ot he r s ” , or wi t h hi r e d he r ds me n. The y a l s o br e d hor s e s , whi c h we r e c ons i de r e d t he be s t i n t he r e gi on, but t he s e we r e l a r ge l y us e d a s pr e s t i ge obj e c t s , a nd gi ve n a s pr e s e nt s t o ot he r r ul e r s . The r e wa s s ome hor s e t r a de wi t h Egypt , a s t he Egypt i a ns ha s a c qui r e d a t a s t e f or Sha mma r hor s e s dur i ng t he r e i gn of Muha mma d Al i . But i n ge ne r a l hor s e s di d not f i gur e l a r ge l y i n t he e c onomy i n a di r e c t s e ns e , a l t hough t he y c oul d pl a y a n i mpor t a nt r ol e i n t he e s t a bl i s hi ng a nd ma i nt e na nc e of ne t wor ks ( Wa l l i n 1854–55/ 1979: 74) . She e p a nd goa t s we r e a l s o pa r t of t he pa s t or a l e c onomy .

- Agr i c ul t ur e wa s pr a c t i c e d i n t he oa s e s . Thi s mos t l y c ons i s t e d of da t e - gr owi ng, f or whi c h t he r e gi on wa s f a mous . Ot he r pr oduc t s f r om t he oa s e s we r e a va r i e t y of f r ui t s a nd ve ge t a bl e s , whe a t a nd ba r l e y ( Al - Ra s he e d 1991: 95) . Pa r t l y t hi s wa s pr oduc e d by s e de nt a r y br a nc he s of t he Sha mma r t r i be s , or by t he i r s l a ve s a nd de pe nde nt s , a nd pa r t l y by a n ol d t r i be t ha t ha d a l l i e d i t s e l f t o t he Sha mma r : t he Be ni Ta mi m ( Wa l l i n 1854–55/ 1979: 64) . The pr oduc t s of bot h pa s t or a l i s m a nd a gr i c ul t ur e we r e e xc ha nge d i n ma r ke t s i n t he t owns a nd vi l l a ge s . Ac c or di ng t o Wa l l i n ( 1854–55/ 1979: 65) “ Thus c ont i nua l i nt e r c our s e a nd t he mos t i nt i ma t e r e l a t i ons , gr ounde d upon mut ua l i nt e r e s t s a nd r e c i pr oc a l a s s i s t a nc e , a r e ke pt a l i ve be t wi xt t he t wo c l a s s e s of Sha mma r , whi c h ha s gr e a t l y c ont r i but e d t o t he i nc r e a s i ng powe r of t ha t t r i be ” .

　　The t hi r d pi l l a r on whi c h t he e c onomy r e s t e d wa s l ong- di s t a nc e t r a de . Si nc e t he Sha mma r pr oduc e d t he c a me l s t ha t we r e ne e de d f or t he t r a de , t he y we r e ne c e s s a r i l y i nvol ve d i n i t , a s pr oduc e r s of t he me a ns of t r a ns por t , gui de s a nd e s c or t s . The r e we r e , e ve r y ye a r , f our ma i n t r a de c a r a va ns t o t he nor t he r n Sha mma r i n Me s opot a mi a , a nd ma ny s ma l l e r one s , a nd muc h of t he whe a t wa s i mpor t e d f r om t he r e , a s we l l a s l uxur y goods s uc h a s r i c e ( Wa l l i n 1854–55/ 1979: 49) a nd ma nuf a c t ur e d goods of l e a t he r a nd t e xt i l e s . Anne a nd Wi l f r e d Bl unt we r e pr oudl y s hown a t e l e phone by Muha mma d i bn Ra s hi d ( Bl unt 1880/ 2002: 255) .

　　Whe n t he Ra s hi di s c a me t o powe r , t he y di d not i nt e r f e r e wi t h t he f i r s t t wo pi l l a r s of t he e c onomy , pa s t or a l i s m a nd a gr i c ul t ur e . The s e c ont i nue d uni nt e r r upt e d, i n t he ha nds of t he i ndi vi dua l t r i be s , a s di d t he l oc a l t r a de or e xc ha nge of t he s e pr oduc t s on t he l oc a l ma r ke t s . I t wa s t he t hi r d ma i ns t a y , t he i nt e r na t i ona l t r a de , t ha t be c a me t he e c onomi c ba s e f or t he powe r of t he Ra s hi di s .

The e c onomy of t he e mi r at e

Ta l a l , t he s e c ond Ra s hi di r ul e r , s uppor t e d a nd e nha nc e d t r a de by c r e a t i ng a ma j or i nt e r na t i ona l t r a de

ma r ke t i n Ha yi l , hi s c a pi t a l ( a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 57–9. 100) a nd e nc our a gi ng me r c ha nt s f r om e l s e whe r e

t o s e t t l e i n Ha yi l ( Pa l gr a ve 1873: 93, 1 12; a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 100–101) . He ha d a n a c t i ve i nt e r e s t

i n t he t r a de c a r a va ns , f or whi c h he pr ovi de d e s c or t ( a l - Ra s he e d 1991: 103) . Hi s br ot he r Muha mma d,

who l a t e r be c a me t he ne xt a mi r , ma de hi s c a r e e r a s a c a r a va n l e a de r , a n e nt e r pr i s e t hr ough whi c h

he ga i ne d bot h we a l t h a nd t he ne t wor k t ha t woul d ma i nt a i n hi m i n powe r l a t e r ( Dought y 1921/ I : 604) .

Thus , by t a ki ng c ont r ol of t he i nt e r na t i ona l t r a de , t hr ough bot h a c t i ve i nvol ve me nt i n i t , a nd t a xi ng,

t he Ra s hi di s ma na ge d t o bui l d up a c ons i de r a bl e c a pi t a l whi c h t he y us e d t o e xe c ut e t he i r pr e s t i gi ous

bui l di ng pr oj e c t s , t o buy t he l oya l t y of t he s he i khs of t he ot he r Sha mma r t r i be s , a nd bui l d up a nd

ma i nt a i n t he i r own s t a ndi ng a r my ( Oppe nhe i m 1952: 44) .

　　Apa r t f r om t he i nt e r na t i ona l t r a de , a n i mpor t a nt s our c e of i nc ome we r e t he r e ve nue s of t he Ha j j . One of t he ma j or Ha j j r out e s , t he Da r b Zobe i da , r a n pa s t Ha yi l . The f a na t i c i s m of t he Wa hha bi s , i n Ri a dh, a l s o pl a ye d i n t he ha nds of t he Ra s hi di c a pi t a l : Shi i t e s , who we r e c ons i de r e d he r e t i c s by t he Wa hha bi s , woul d a voi d Wa hha bi t e r r i t or y , a nd t r a ve l t o t he hol y c i t i e s vi a Ha yi l ( Dought y 1921/ I I : 49–50) .

　　So t he oa s i s of Ha yi l de ve l ope d i nt o a ma j or ma r ke t t own a nd a c e nt r a l pl a c e , t he a bs ol ut e c e nt r e of gr a vi t y f or bot h t he e c onomy a nd t he powe r of t he e mi r a t e .

Tr i bal s oc i al or gani z at i on was us e d and mani pul at e d t o or gani z e t he bur e auc r ac y of t he e mi r at e By c r e a t i ng t he e mi r a t e , a hi e r a r c hi c a l l e ve l a bove t ha t of t he s he i kh, t he I bn Ra s hi d a l s o c r e a t e d a n a r t i f i c i a l di s t a nc e be t we e n t he ms e l ve s a nd t he i r t r i be s me n, a di s t a nc e t ha t di d not e xi s t be t we e n t he s he i kh a nd hi s t r i be s me n. As a r e s ul t , t he I bn Ra s hi d i nt e r a c t e d wi t h t he ot he r s he i khs a nd wi t h t he t r i be s on t wo di f f e r e nt l e ve l s : t ha t of a f i r s t a mong e qua l s , a t r i ba l s he i kh, a nd t ha t of t he r ul e r . Thi s di s c r e pa nc y wa s be s t e xpr e s s e d i n t he a r c hi t e c t ur e of t he pa l a c e i n Ha yi l , a nd t he r ol e i t pl a ye d i n e ve r yda y l i f e . The pa l a c e ha s be e n de s c r i be d by nume r ous t r a ve l l e r s ( Wa l l i n 1854–55/ 1979:

200–01, Eut i ng 1896: 200–01; Dought y 1921/ I I : 5; Pa l gr a ve 1873: 72–73) . I t ha d a l a r ge c our t ya r d, s ur r ounde d by a he a vy wa l l wi t h hi gh t owe r s a nd ba s t i ons , me a nt bot h t o i mpr e s s , a nd t o s e t t he l e a de r s hi p a pa r t f r om i t s s ubj e c t s , unl i ke a t r i ba l s he i kh, who t r a di t i ona l l y c a mpe d a mong t he m.

　　One of t he r e s pons i bi l i t i e s of a s he i kh or t r i ba l l e a de r , wa s t he s e t t l i ng of di s put e s . The j udi c i a r y s ys t e m wa s s i mpl e , a nd de r i ve d f r om t he t r i ba l s ys t e m of j us t i c e . I n t he t r i ba l s ys t e m t he s he i kh woul d be t he f i r s t c our t of j us t i c e ; di f f i c ul t c a s e s we r e put be f or e pr of e s s i ona l qadi s ( Bur c kha r dt 1830:

66–75; J a us s e n 1908: 132–33, 181–185) . I bn Ra s hi d c ont i nue d t hi s pr a c t i c e , i n t ha t he woul d hol d c our t e ve r y mor ni ng, a nd s ome t i me s i n t he a f t e r noon a s we l l , on t he c our t ya r d of hi s pa l a c e ( t he me j l i s ; Pa l gr a ve 1873: 97; Dought y 1921/ I : 607–8) . The s e s i t t i ngs we r e a c c e s s i bl e t o e ve r ybody wi t h a c ompl a i nt , a nd t he a mi r woul d j udge e ve r y c a s e t ha t wa s br ought be f or e hi m, a s s i s t e d by qadi s f r om t he t own. J us t i c e wa s pr a c t i c e d i n t he s a me wa y i n ot he r t owns ( Pa l gr a ve 1873: 53) on be ha l f of t he e mi r . Thus t he a mi r wa s i nf or me d of a nyt hi ng t ha t ha ppe ne d i n hi s r e a l m, a nd a t t he s a me t i me he ma i nt a i ne d hi s di r e c t c ont a c t wi t h t he t r i be me mbe r s . Wha t di f f e r e d f r om t he t r i ba l s ys t e m wa s t ha t t he a mi r ha d, t hr ough hi s pr of e s s i ona l pol i c e f or c e , a me a ns t o e nf or c e hi s s e nt e nc e s , s ome t hi ng a t r i ba l s he i kh woul d ge ne r a l l y not ha ve ( Dought y 1921/ I : 607) . Puni s hme nt s we r e e xe c ut e d on t he s pot , t hus unde r l i ni ng t he j udi c i a l powe r of t he a mi r .

　　Anot he r f e a t ur e t ha t s e t t he Ra s hi di r ul e r a pa r t f r om hi s s ubj e c t s wa s hi s we a l t h, whi c h wa s muc h l a r ge r t ha n t ha t of a ny t r i ba l s he i kh, a nd whi c h he a ma s s e d ma i nl y t hr ough t a xe s on t he t r a de . The us e he ma de of t hi s we a l t h, howe ve r , r e ma i ne d f or a l a r ge pa r t t he s a me a s t ha t of a t r i ba l s he i kh.

He us e d i t bot h t o i mpr e s s , a nd t o i nc r e a s e hi s powe r a nd i nf l ue nc e by me a ns of hi s ge ne r os i t y – by ‘ buyi ng’ t he s he i khs of t he c onf e de r a t i on. The s he i khs we r e t he c ha nne l t hr ough whi c h t he s uppor t of t he ot he r t r i be me mbe r s wa s bought .

　　Apa r t f r om t ha t he us e d i t t o ma i nt a i n hi s bodygua r d. I t i s c l e a r t ha t t he da nge r of mur de r ma de a bodygua r d a ne c e s s a r y a c c out r e me nt of a Ra s hi di r ul e r , but i t a l s o s e t t he r ul e r a pa r t f r om t he ot he r s he i khs of t he c onf e de r a t i on, who ne ve r ha d a pr of e s s i ona l a r my , howe ve r s ma l l .

　　Ne ve r t he l e s s , t he a ut hor i t y of t he a mi r ne ve r be c a me f ul l y i ns t i t ut i ona l i z e d. Eve r y a mi r ha d t o ga i n i t f r om t he f i r s t da y of hi s e mi r a t e , a nd t o wor k on i t f or t he r e s t of hi s c a r e e r . The t r i be s , a nd t he i r s he i khs , a l wa ys ha d t he pos s i bi l i t y t o wi t hhol d t he i r s uppor t , a s ha ppe ne d i n t he c a s e of Mi t a b, t he s on of Abd- e l Az i z , i n 1906. He di d not ha ve t he s uppor t of t he r ul i ng f a mi l y , or of t he ot he r t r i be s , a nd a s a c ons e que nc e he wa s powe r l e s s . Dur i ng a nd a f t e r Wor l d Wa r I t he I bn Ra s hi d l os t t he s uppor t of ma ny t r i be s who j oi ne d t he I bn Sa ud or t he Ha s he mi t e s , a nd i n 1921 t he i r e mi r a t e wa s e nde d, t hr ough i nt e r na l di s s e nt i on a mong t he Ra s hi di s t he ms e l ve s ( Oppe nhe i m 1952: 40–41;

Mus i l 1928; a l - Ra s he e d 1991) .