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The High Road to Writing Proficiency

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Kobe Shoin Women’s University Repository

Title

The High Road to Writing Proficiency

Author(s)

Alan E.

Jackson

Citation

Shoin Literary Review,No.21:1-22

Issue Date

1987

Resource Type

Bulletin Paper / 紀要論文

Resource Version

URL

Right

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The 

High 

Road 

to  Writing 

Proficiency

Alan  E.Jackson

1.Introduction Iamhereengagedintheproductionapieceofwriting.Iamboth makingan"essay"(strugglingthroughaprocessofgeneratingand expressingideas)andcreatinga"paper"(afinishedproduct),andif myessayistoturnintoasuccessfulpaperIwillneedtobringtothe taskofwritingbothanappreciationofwhatgoodproductslooklike andasufficientcontroloverwritingprocessestopermitmetofindout whatImeanandexpresswhatImeantosay. Butisthatall?The"what"and"how"ofwritingarenecessarybut notsufficient.Thereisalsothe"why".ff,inconsideringmypresent writingtask,IaskmyselfwhyIamdoingit,Icanfindannumberof answers.Tobeginwith,sinceIamafterallacollegeteacher,Imight saythatIamdoingitbecauseiamexpectedto.Butthisanswerdoes notcarrymeveryfar.OfmuchgreaterimportanceisthefactthatI wanttofindoutwhatIthinkandIwanttothinkabout,andcommuni-catetoothers,what,intheprocessofwriting,Iwillfindout. ThatIneedseveralreasonsforsettingaboutthetaskisindicativeof thefactthatwritingisapainfulandtimeconsumingbusiness.I persevere,however,becauseIknowthatthestrugglecanberewarding. 1'vebeenrewardedbeforeandconsequentlyhavetheconfidenceto investbo廿1timeandenergyinanenterprisewhoseresultsareuncer・ tain. Whatconcernsmeasateacherofwritinginjuniorcollege,however, -1一

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isthattherateofreturnonclassroomwritingactivitiesmaynotlook veryhealthytomanyofmystudents,Forthemthetimeandenergy.. investedmustoftenseemexcessiveinrelationtotherewardsthatare likelytoaccrue.Theyconsequentlyadopta"lowroad"stragegyof merely"satisficing",ofdoingtheminimumnecessarytosatisfycourse requirements.

Lookedatinthisway,thetaskofthewritingteacherbecomesclear. Itistogetstudentsoffthe"lowroad"ofminimumeffortontoa"high road"towardswritingproficiencycharacterisedbyconstantsuccesson writingtasksofincreasingdifficultyattempedwiththeincreasing confidencethatsuccessbrings. Howthiscanbeachievedistheproblemaddressedinthispaperand, asafirststeptowardsfindingananswer,itisnecessarytosurveyand commentonwhatresearchersandteachershavediscoveredaboutthe skillofwritinganditsaquisition. 2.Background‐EmpiricalEvidence ThelargestbodyofKnowledgeofrelevancetothewritingteacher, thatrelatingtothelinguisticandsemanticstructureoftexts,issowell knownandhasforsolongbeenthemaininfluenceonwritingpro-grammedevelopmentthatlittleneedstobesaidaboutithere.Three othercategoriesofempiricalevidencedohowevermeritdiscussion 2.1.Input-DutputResearch Researchintotherelationshipbetweenwritingproficiencyanda varietyofwritingprogrammeinputshasbeencomprehensivelyrevi-ewedbyKrashen.〔1》Hisfindingsmaybesummarisedasfollows: a)StudiesofEFLwriting-Krashen(2》mentionsonlyone: *Thereseemstobearelationshipbetweenwritingfrequencyand

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bothaccuracyandfluencyofwritingatleastatthelevelofthe sentence.(Briere) b)Studiesoflanguageacquisitionofrelevancetothewritingteacher. AmongsttheseKrashen(2)quotesthefollowing: *Instructionofthetraditionalkindwhichseekstopromotecon-sciouslearningseemstobeofsignificantvalueonlyatbeginner levelswhensuchinstructionprovidesagreaterquantityofcompre- hensibleinputthaneitherlesscontrolledclassroomlearningactiv-itiesortheevenlessco-operativeoutsideworld.(Krashen) *Errorcorrectionseemslargelyirrelevanttolanguageacquisition. (Dulay,BurtandKrashen) c}Input-outputstudiesofmother-tongue(L1)writing.Againrelying onKrashen〔3)wefindthat: *Skilledwritershavedonemorewriting(Bamberg,McQueenetal) thoughtherelationshipbetweenwritingfrequencyandwriting proficiencyseemstobeweakerthanthatbetweenpleasurereading andwritingproficiency.Thislastpointhasbeenconfirmedby studieswhichlookedspecificallyattherelativeimportanceofthe twoinputs.(Heys,DeVries) *Writerswhoreceivefeedbackfromtheteacherbetweendraftsof anessayseemtomakemoreprogressthanthosewhoreceive feedbackonlyaftercompletingthefinaldraft.(Beach) *Formalinstructionincompositionproducedsomegainsinwriting proficiency.(Bamberg,Shaughnessy) *Fullerrorcorrectionofastudent'sfinaldraftproducesnogreater gainsinwritingproficiencythanwhentheteacherdrawsthe student'sattentiontoonlyoneerrorperessay.{Arnold} *Formalgrammarinstructionseemsirrelevanttothedevelopment ofwritingproficiency.(Elleyetal,Clark) 3一

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Theoverallimpressionmadebythisbriefsurveyofinput-output studiesisreallyoneofdisappointment.Thefindingsaresuggestiveof anumberofthings‐thatreadingandwritingfrequencyareimportant, thaterrorcorrectionisirrelevant,andthatformalinstructionisless thanuseful‐buttheconfidencewithwhichwemakeuseofthemin thedevelopmentofEFLwritingprogrammesisseriouslyundermined bythefactthattheyareforthemostpartresultsofLIwriting research,Moreovertheinputsstudiedaresogross,sobroadlydefined, thatstudiesinvolvingthemservemerelytoconfirmcommonsense. Studieswhichseektoexploretherelationshipbetweenwriting proficiencyandmorecloselydefinedinputs--specifictypesofformal instruction,forexample‐i,e.studieswhichpromisetoyieldmore detailedandvaluableadvicetotheteacher,areinevitablyinconclusive sincethemorecloselydefinedtheinputstudied,thelargerthelearner samplerequiredandthegreaterthedifficultyencounteredincontrol-lingextraneousfactors. 2.2.WritingProcessResearch Anincreasinglyimportantsecondlineofresearchrelatestothe natureofthewritingprocessitself.Researchinthisfield,firstcarried outintheUnitedStateswithLIwritersbyEmig」4'andPerl,〔5)amongst others,andmorerecentlywithESLwritersbyresearcherssuchas Zamel,(6)・(7)andArndt,(8〕hasclaimedtodemonstrateahighdegreeof similaritybetweenthewritingprocessesadoptedbystudentswritingin theirmothertongueandthosecomposinginaforeignlanguage.The resultsofthesestudiesmaybesummarised,intermsofwhatskilled writersknowanddothatunskilledwritersdon't,asfollows *Skilledwritersknowthatwritingisamessybusinessthatleadsto clarity.Theyknowattheoutsetthattheirideaswilldevelopasthe

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writingprocessunfoldsandthattheirfocusmaychange.They experiencewritingasaprocessofdiscovery. *Skilledwritersrealizethatwritingisarecursiveprocess,nota linearone.Awareoftheimportanceofideas,theyspendalotof timeplanningbutleavetheirplansflexible.Theyengagein retrospectivestructuring,frequentlyre-readingwhattheyhave writtenandfrequentlyrevising. *Skilledwriterstaketheirtime,arewillingtowriteseveraldrafts andrecognisethevalueofleavingoffwritingforawhilesothat theymayreturntoitwithfresheyesandfreshideas. *Skilledwriters,givingprioritytoideasandtheirorganisation, initiallyputasidetheirconcernwithlanguageandleaveeditingto theendwhenproblemsofcontenthavebeensubstantiallysolved. *Skilledwritersengageinprojectivestructuringi.e.theymodel theiraudienceandprojectthemselvesintotheroleofthereader. Theirwritingisdecenteredandexplicit. Itmustbeemphasisedthatthischaracterisationofskilledwriters, andbynegativeimplicationofunskilledwriters,isbothverygeneral indeedandpartlytheresultofinterpretationheavilyinfluencedbya bodyofimpressiveLlresearch.Itinfactconcealsagreatdealof individualvariationamongstbothskilledandunskilledwritersand shouldperhapsbemodifiedtotakeaccountoftheresultsofsome recentstudieswhichseemtoshowthatmothertonguewritingskills canbecarriedoverintotheforeignlanguage.Raimes,(9)forexample, showedthat *UnskilledL2writers,thoughconstrainedbylackofvocabulary, ,.

werenotasconcernedwitherrorashadbeenexpected.

*Theyseemedtobeabletoengage,tosomeextentatleast,in

writingasdiscovery.

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*Theydemonstratedsomeawarenessofaudience. 2.3.ResearchRelatingTaskStructuretoTaskPerformance Findingsincludethefollowing *Studentsintheearlystagesofawritingprogrammewritelonger, moreaccurately,inlesstimeandwithlessplanningontopicsof directpersonalrelevancethanonmoreobjectivetasks. (Taylor{log) *Inacademicsettingsstudentsreportapreferenceformoreob-jectivewritingtasks.(Zamel(11)) *Studentsreportgreatfrustrationatbeinggivenwritingtopics"out oftheblue"andbeingtoldtowritewithoutpreparation. (Zame1ロ2)) 3.Background‐Pedagogy Empiricalresearchinthefieldoflanguagelearningcanprovideno morethanpartofthefoundationonwhichateachingprogramcanbe built.Itmustbesupplementedbysomeconsiderationofthemore anecdotalyetnolessimportantevidenceprovidedbyclassroomexperi-ence. Attheoutsetitisimportanttonotethattherearemanywaysof combiningindividualteachingtechniquesintoawritingprogrammeand thereareprobablyasmanyapproachestotheteachingofwritingas thereareteachers.Itisneverthelessclearlynecessarytogeneralize aboutwhathappensinclassroomsand,forthispurpose,wecanmake useofanimportantdifferenceintheassumptions,consciousorother-wise,broughttotheclassroombydifferentgroupsofteachers.One group,adoptingaproductapproach,assumethatpoorwritingabilityis theresultofasyetinadequatelanguageaquisition.Theothergroup,

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adoptingaprocessapproach,seelowproficiencyastheconsequenceof

theadoptionofaninefficientwritingprocess.

3.1.TheProductApproach

Writingcourseswhichmaybecharacterizedasfocussingonproduct

aretypicallyorganisedaroundasyllabusderivingfromresearchinto

thelinguisticandsemanticstructureoftext.Thesyllabusinventory

generallycontainsbothformalelements(unitsoftext,bothinter-and

intra--sentential)andsemanticelements{unitsofdiscoursestructure)

whicharethenorganisedintoasequencedsyllabusinaccordancewith

somefundamentalorganisingprinciple.Inthesedaysoffunctional

approachestosyllabusdesign,thisorganisationisoftenbasedona

gradedsequenceofimportantdiscoursetypessuchasnarrativeor

description.

Thepreferredteachingmethodologyemployedwithinthisapproach

isthefamillaroneofabstractingaparticularstructuralelement,

practicingitinisolationandinacontrolledmanner,andthenintegrat-ingitwithpreviouslylearneditemsinessayswhosetopicshavebeen

carefullychosentonecessitateuseoftheiteminquestion.Common

exercisetypesincludegapfilling,sentencecombining,sentencesequen-cingandparagraphwritingbasedonmodels.

Theproductapproachseemstoofferasuitablewayforwardtoat

leasttwogroupsofstudents;beginnerswhostillhavealotoflanguage

acquiringtodo,and,attheotherendofthespectrumoflanguage

learningexperience,relativelyadvancedlearnerswhomayneedto

acquireanabilitytoproducesomekindsofhighlyconventionalised

textssuchasformalletters.

Butwhatofthevastmajorityoflearnerswhofallbetweenthesetwo

extremes?Assumingthatsuchstudentsneedbothmorelanguage

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acquistionandmorecomposingpractice,themethodologiesoffered withintheproductapproachmaybelessthanadequate.Asfaras languageacquisitionisconcerned,theapproachisprobablyoverheavy onactivitiesdesignedtopromoteconsciouslearning,thoughthiscriti-cismcanbecounteredbyarefinementtothemethodologywhich replacesabstractionandcontrolledpracticeofsyllabusunitsbyexer-ciseswhichobligestudentstoanalysetextsforthemselves.Ofgreater importisthefactthathavingstudentswritefrommodelsconstrains themsoseverelythattheyhavenoopportunitytoworkthroughthe multitudeofproblems,ofgeneratingideas,oforganisation,ofpurpose andofaudience,thatthereal-lifewriterisconfrontedwith.Theyare excusedthestruggleandconsequentlyforgothelearning.AsZameli13) says:"Ratherthanassigningessaysthataresupposedtorepresent idealrhetoricalmodelsandwhichareoftentheimitationofsuch models,weshouldbehelpingstudentsunderstandthatdecisionsabout formandorganisationmakesenseonlywithreferencetotheparticular ideasbeingexpressed.Thetendencytodootherwise,toappropriate students'textsbytakingprimarycontrolofthechoiceswritersmake givesthestudentstheimpressionthatwhattheywantedtostayisless relevantthantheteacher'sexpectationsabouthowtheyshouldhave saidit." Deprivedofanopportunitytosaywhattheywanttosayandofareal audiencetosayitto,thebusinessofputtingwordsonapagebecomes forthestudent(touseWiddowson'swords(14))"notasocialactivitybut alanguageexercise;amanifestationoflinguisticrulesfordisplayand notarealizationoflinguisticrulesforcommunication." Theresult,asRaimes(15)pointsout,oftrappingthestudentsinthe sentenceorprepackagedparagraphareessaysthatareflat,uninspiring anddevoidofthepersonalinvolvementsonecessaryforlearning.Since

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theneedtoexpressmeaning,tocommunicate,istheprimarymotiva-tionforceinlanguagelearning,wecanagreewithTaylor(16}thattasks whichputrealcommunicationonthesidelinecheatthestudentsoutof animportantlearningexperience. 3.2.The」Process/4砂70α`ん Processbasedwritingcoursesgenerallydispensewithalinguistic syllabusandbuildindividualunitsofworkaroundsuitabletopicsor combinationsoftopicandmajordiscoursetype.Derivingfrom researchintothewritingprocessesofbothskilledandunskilledwriters, processbasedcoursesattempttomodifystudents'writingbehaviour towardstheseeminglymoreefficientprocessesadoptedbyproficient writers.Strippeddowntoitsessentialsthemethodologycanbeseenas comprisingthefollowingelements *Apre-writingstageduringwhichstudentsarehelpedandencour-agedtogenerateideasaboutthechosentopic,andformulatea looselystructuredwritingplan. *Thewritingofafirstdraftwiththeemphasisoncontentandits organisationandwithstudentsencouragednottoconcernthem-selvesundulywithhowthecontentisexpressed. *Afeedbackstageinwhichtheteacherand/orfellowstudents respondtothewritersideasandcommentonthecoherenceoftheir organisationandonthewriter'ssuccessinaccomodatingthe audience'sviewoftheworld. *Thewritingofasecondreviseddraft. *Asecondfeedbackstagesimilartothefirstbutwithsomeatten-Lionpaidtoexplicitnessofexpression. *Thewritingandeditingofafinaldraft. *Afinalresponsefromtheteacher,primarilytocontent,butwith -9一

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attentionalsopaidtoselectedaspectsofvocabulary,sentence structureandtextstructure. Underlyingthisapproachtotheteachingofwritingarethreekey assumptions;thatunskilledwritershaveanerroneousviewofwhat writinginvolves,thattheyareunabletomodeltheiraudience,andthat theirinabilitytowritewelldoesnotresultfrominadequatelanguage acquisition.Learners,tobemoreprecise,areassumedtoseethe processofconstructinganessayasanessentiallylinearprocessinvoly-ingtheexpressionofalreadywell-formedandwell-organisedideas .As aresult,theydevelopexcessivelyrigidwritingplansandaresopre-occupiedwiththetaskoffindinglanguagewithwhichtoencodetheir ideas,andespeciallywithavoidingerror,thatcontentremainsun-developed.Furthermore,theyfailtocreatetextthatissufficiently explicittopermitthereadertodecodetheintendedmessagewith precision. Themethodologyemployedcounteractstheseproblemsinthree ways:byemphasisingcontent,byencouragingthewritertoreflecton whatheorshehaswrittenandthenmakeuseofre-writingstrategies tofurtherdevelopcontentandorganisationunhamperedbyworries overlinguisticaccuracy,andbyconfrontingthewriterwithaspecific readersothatheorshemaylearntotakeaccountofaudiencefactors . Theprocessapproachseemstohavemetwithsuccessinsituations whereitsunderlyingassumptionsholdtruei.e.inLlwritingclasses (seeOde11(17)andHilgers(18りbutmaybelessthanwhollyappropriate whentransferredwholesaletoadultEFLclasses.Tobeginwith,the abilitytouselanguageindecontextualisedsituationsi.e.towritewith explicitness,islearnableinanylanguageandcanbetransferredto writinginanyotherlanguage.Further,asRaimes'(19〕studydemonstrat・ ed,adultESLwriterscanexperienceL2writingasdiscoveryandcan

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takeaccountofaudiencefactors.Finally,apointmadebyArndt,(2①the existenceofconsiderableindividualdifferencesinthewritingprocesses adoptedbyequallyproficientwriterscallsintoquestiontheadvisability ofrequiringallstudentstofollowthesamerigidcomposingprocedure sincesomestudentsmaywellviewwell-meaningteacherintervention asteacherinterference. 4.The」 田9宛1ヒoα4 Whatisstrikingaboutthetwoapproachestotheteachingofwriting describedaboveistheextenttowhichtheyreflecttheconcernsof researcherswitheitherwritingastextorwritingasprocessatthe expenseofwhatinmanyteachingsituationsmaybeofmorefundamen-talimportance‐theteacher'sneedtoraiseandthenmaintainstudent motivationtowrite.Thedangeristhatteachersmayadopteitherone ofthesewell-establishedapproachestotheteachingofwritinginthe mistakenbeliefthattheyrepresent"methods"ofuniversalapplication. Thatthismayhappenisnotsurprisingsincebothapproachesarelinked toasubstantialbodyofempiricalresearchwhich,incomparisonwith thegeneralinconclusivenessofinput-outputstudies,seemstooffer certaintyinaworldofgeneralconfusion. Thiscertaintyis,however,likelytobemisleadinginmanyteaching situationsandshouldbeabandonedinfavourofacriticalevaluationof teachingtechniquesinrelationtothespecificgroupoflearnerswith whichtheteacherisinvolved.Thoughthistaskmaybeadifficultone, itisessentialthatindividualteachingtechniquesbedissociatedfrom theirpackages,themethods,andrecombinedandsupplementedas occasiondemandsi.e.accordingtothestudents'developmentstage,so astomaintainprogressalongthemostefficientpathtowardswriting proficiency. -11一

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Buthowcanonecharacterisethismostefficientpath?Bywhat criteriacanoneevaluateteachingtechniquessoastodeterminetheir applicabilitytostudentsofaparticularbackgroundandataparticular developmentstage?Theanswer,intheabsenceoftrulyconclusive evidenceastotheresponsivnessofwritingproficiencytoawiderange ofteacherinputs,isthatoptimalprogressisonlyattainedwhenlear- nerscompletewritingtaskswithsufficientsuccesstoapproachsubse-quentandmoredifficulttaskscertaininthebeliefthattheytoocanbe successfullycompleted. Thisofcoursesoundsveryvagueandneedsclarification.Letme explain.Wecanviewstudentsasbringingtothewritingclassabasic motivationcomprisingoneormoreofthefollowingelements;adesire tomeetcourserequirements,aneedtolearntowriteforpurposes beyondthecourse,anexpectationoffindingpleasureinthecourse itself.Confrontedwithawritingtask,theywillrepresenttothemselves theproblemsitposesandmakeeffortstosolvethemonlytotheextent thattheyaremotivatedtodoso.Ifboththeirneedtolearntowriteand theirexpectationofgainingpleasurefromthetaskareminimal,they willadoptthe"lowroad"approachofdoingtheminimumtosatisfy courserequirements.Theproblemsposedbythetask--generating ideas,organisingthem,modellingtheaudienceandfindinglanguagefor theexplicitexpressionofmeaning‐willatbestbeonlypartially solvedandnomotivationalmomentumwillhavebeengainedtobe carriedforwardtothenexttask. Tohelpstudentsgetonthecontrasting"highroad"towriting proficiencycharacterisedbyconstantwritingsuccessonincreasingly difficultwritingtasksdonewithprogressivelylessteacherassistanceit willbenecessaryfortheteachertodooneormoreofthefollowingas appropriate

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*Designtaskswhichareintrinsicallymotivatinginthatthey involverelevantsubjectmatter,allowstudentstoengageinthe. satisfyingsocialactivityofcommunicatingmeaningandcreating dialogue,andprovideanopportunityforstudentstofindtheirown voiceandexperiencewritingasaprocessofdiscovery.As Arndt'21'says,"writingisanactofpersonalcommittmentandthe abilitytosaysomethinginyourownvoiceisanimportantmeasure ofquality." *Helpstudentstorepresentthewritingproblemtothemselvesby helpingthemintothetopicand,ifnecessary,byprovidingassis-tancewiththetaskofmodellingtheaudience. *Reducethewritingproblembyloweringperformanceconstraints, notsomuchastotrivialisethewritingtask(theprocessoflearn-ingtowriteconsistsinthestrivingforasuccessfulfusionof thoughtandlanguagetofittherhetoricalcontext),butsufficient toallowstudentstobothhaveandfulfillexpectationsofwriting success. Theprecisenatureofappropriateteacherinterventiondependsof courseonthenatureofthelearners.Sincewearehereconcernedwith thetaskofoutliningawritingcourseforjuniorcollege,thenextsection willattemptasketchoftheneeds,skillsandattitudesofjuniorcollege studentsandadescriptionoftheirlearningsituation. 5.TheLearnersandtheContextofLearning 5.1.刀z召 五earners While190r20yearoldjuniorcollegestudentsexhibitconsiderable varietyastotheirneedsandtheskillsandattitudestheybringtothe classroom,itispossibletocharactisetheminnottoogrossgeneral termsasfollows 13

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a)Needs‐Thestudentsneitherhavenorareconsciousofhavinga pressingneedtolearntowriteinEnglishforpurposesbeyondthe writingcoursei.e.noclearinstrumentalmotivation,sincefewcan realisticallyexpecttomakefrequentuseofEnglishintheirfuture employment.Thisdoesnotofcoursemeanthattheyhavenoreason tolearntowrite.Theymayfindlearningtowriteaninteresting challenge,theymayseewritingasassistingtheminthemoregeneral taskofacquiringanactivecommandoftheEnglishlanguage,orthey mayfeelaneedtoacquireaverygeneralizedEnglishwritingability whichcanlaterberefinedandturnedtoaccountifandwhentheneed arises. b)KnowledgeandSkills‐TheyhavebeenlearningEnglishforat leastsixyearsandhavemadeconsiderableprogresstowardsacquir-ingareceptiveknowledgeofEnglish.Muchofwhattheyhave learned,however,hasyettoberoutineizedforimmediateandeffi-cientproductiveusesincetheyhavehadfewopportunitiestousethe languageforauthenticcommunicativepurposes.Theyhavenot,to paraphraseWiddowson,(22)acquiredasufficientlylargesetofadapta-bleclichestoallowthemtotransfertheirattentioneasilyawayfrom thetaskofconstructingaccuratetexttothehigherordercom-municativeoperationofconstructingcoherentdiscourse.Inaddition theyseemtolackanadequateactivevocabularyandwastemuchof theirefforttorectifythisdeficiencybymakingpooruseofdiction-aries. Asadults,ofcourse,theybringtotheclassroomaconsiderable knowledgeoftheworldaroundthemand,Iwouldguess,anabilityto writewithconsiderableaccuracyandfluencyintheirownlanguage. Theymustcertainlyhaveexperiencedwritingasdiscoveryintheir mothertongueandarenodoubtcapableofmodellingtheiraudience

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andconsideringitsneedswhencomposing. c)Attitudes‐Thestudentsareatthatintermediatestageoflan-guagelearningcharacterisedbyrisingdoubtsastowhetherprogress isactuallybeingmadeand,sincethesenseofdirectionthatreal worldlanguagelearninggoalsprovideisunfortunatelyunavailableto them,areoftennotveryhighlymotivated. Theyoftenseeminhibited,partlyofcoursebylanguagerestriction andafearofbeingcriticisedformakingerrors,butmostlybecause thepublicexpressionofideas,attitudesandopinionsinnotsome-thingthathasbeenencouragedintheireducationalexperience. Conditionedintoviewinglanguagelearningastheacquistionofan abstractsystemoflinguisticrulesandnotasameansbywhich meaningisnegotiated,socialrelationscementedandtheirworlds controlled,theydoasBlanton's〔23)studentsand``respondtoeachact ofwritingasifitwereatest,therebydenyingthemselvesthe psychologicalandintellectualspacetoworkwithwrittenlanguage." Thoughtheycometothewritingclasswithaconcernforformal correctnessthatmayinhibittheexpressionofcontent,theirconcern doesnotgoverydeep.Unlikenativespeakersforwhom,according toWiddowson,(24)correctnessisenforcedbysocialpressure,learners ofEnglishasaforeignlanguagehavenoinbuiltawarenessoftheloss ofstatusandrespectthataccompaniestheuse,especiallyinwriting, ofEnglishthatisill-formed.Asaresult,intheabsenceofteacher comment,theymayfailtoeditouteveneasilycorrectableerrors fromtheiressays. Onamorepositivenote,itisgenerallytruethatthestudentscome totheclassroomequippedwithastrongintegrativemotivationwhich makesthemhighlyresponsivetotaskswhichinvolvetheminco-operativeworkwitheitherteacherorotherlearners. -15一

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5.2.TheLearningContext Salientfeaturesofthelearningcontextincludethefollowing a)Classesarerelativelylargeandrelativelylittletimeisdevotedto theskillofwritingmakingitdifficulttoprovideagreatdealof individualattention. b)Thecollegecurriculumcomprises,inadditiontoawritingcourse, alargenumberofcoursesbasedonreading.Agreatdealofprovi-sionisthusmadewithinthecurriculumforlanguageacquisition activities. 6.AWritingProgrammeDutline Armedwithourprofileofthelearnersandtheircontext,itisnow possibletospecifyingeneraltermsandforeachstageofthewriting programmethetypesofwritingtasksandtaskadministrationproce-duresthatwillallowstudentstogetonandcontinuealongthehighroad towritingproficiency. Thewritingprogrammeoutlinedbelowcomprisesaflexiblethree-stagesyllabus,withsuccessivestagescorrespondingtotheneedto changestudentattitudes,toallowthemtoexperiencewritingasdiscov-eryandtoprovidewithinthecourseaseriousobjectivetowardswhich effortscanbedirected,andamethodologywhichstrikesabalance betweenthepracticalnecessityfortheteachertodealwiththeclassas awholeandthestudents'needforindividualattention. 6.1.PhaseOne‐Transition a)Objective‐Sincestudentsgenerallybringtotheclassroomaset ofattitudesthatmilitateagainstwritingsuccess,thekeyobjectivein thisfirst"transition"phaseis,inBlanton'S(2s)words,"toreshapehow theyfeelaboutwritingtohaveanychancewiththematall."

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Specificallyitisnecessarytohavelearnerscometorealizethatwhat theysayisofinterestandimportanceandthatcommunicatingtheir ideasthroughthemediumofEnglishwritingisanintrinsically satisfyingactivity. b}Strategy‐Thestrategyforachievingthisreshapingobjective consistsofthefollowingelements *Thecreationintheclassroomofacommunicativenetworkof student-studentandstudent-teacherdialogues. *Anemphasisoncontentandacorrespondingde-emphasisof formalaccuracy. *Studentfreedomtocontrolwritingtopicandlength ,torepresent thewritingproblemtothemselvesinaself-regulatingadjustment ofwritingcomplexitytowritingability. c)Methodology‐Theabovestragegyisrealizedbytwosetsof learningactivities. *Outsideclass--Thestudentskeepajournalinwhichtheyfreely recordbothinformationaboutthemselvesandtheirexperienceand impressionsofandreflectionsontheworldaboutthem .Journal entriesmustbewrittenonaregular,preferablydaily ,basiswith theteacherrespondingtotheircontentperiodicallysoastocreate afriendlyandpersonalteacher-studentdialogue.Additionally ,the teachermaykeepajournalofhisorherownanddistributecopies ofittothestudentsbywayofencouragingthemwiththeirown journalsandcontributingtothedialoguebetweenteacherand class.Allthis,ofcourse,takesagreatdealofteachertimebut experienceshowsthatthemaintenanceofadialogueinjournal formoverasixorsevenweektransitionperiodbringsrewardsin theformofenhancedstudentmotivationandapplicationoutofall proportiontotheeffortputin. -17一

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*Inclass‐Studentfreedomtocontrolcontentgiveswayto teacherdirectedtaskswhichareintendedtofacilitatecommunica-一 一 tioninwrittenEnglishbetweenstudents.Appropriatetasksare short,therebykeepingproblemsofdiscoursecoherenceandtext cohesiontoaminimum,andsoorganisedastoensurethatevery-thingwrittenisrespondedto.Whiletasksshoulddemandavariety ofwritingstyles,asubstantialproportionshouldobligestudentsto expresstheirownfeelingsandopinions. 6.2.PhaseTwo‐Development a)Objective‐Thissecondmuchlonger"development"phasehasfor itsobjective,giventhatlanguageacquisitionislargelycateredfor elsewhereinthecurriculum,thegradualdevelopmentofwriting skillsthroughwritingpractice. b)Stragegy‐Centraltotheachievementofthisobjectiveisthe provisionofagradedseriesofsubstantialessaytasks,meaning essaysoftwoormoreparagraphsontopicsofsufficientinterestand complexitytoallowstudentstoexperiencewritingasdiscovery,and theuseofclassroomprocedureswhichobligestudentstocommuni-catetheirideastoothers. c)Methodology--Thestrategycanberealizedbyamethodology comprisingthefollowingfoursetsofteacherinterventiontechniques. *TaskDefinition-Duringthissecondphaseofthewritingpro-gramme,theteachercantakeaccountofthestudents'growing proficiencybygradingtasksaccordingtolength(from,say,200 wordsto500words),topic(frommorepersonaltomoreobjective) anddiscoursetype(fromdescriptionandnarrative,whichoften haveanaturalstructure,tothemorecomplexexpositoryand argumentativestyles).

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*Pre-writing-一 一一Priortostudentsputtingpentopaper,theteacher needstoassistthemwithboththegenerationofideasandwith language,particularlyvocabulary.Arangeofinventiontechniques areavailableforthispurpose(seeZame1126))andthesecanbe complementedbytheprovisionoftextsonthetopicinquestionand classdiscussion.Thispre-writingactivityservesnotonlythe functionofhelpingstudentsrepresentthewritingtasktothem-selvesandfindawayintothetopicbutalsoprovidesthemwith relevantvocabularyandhelpsmakewritingasharedactivity.The provisionoftextsalsoservesanotherfunction,thatofprovidinga contextforthefocussingofstudentattentiononaspectsoftext cohesionoftenneglectedinreadingcourses.Essayplanningcanbe lefttostudentsthemselves,theirmothertongueexperienceshould besufficientguideinthis. *BetweenDrafts-一 一Aspointedoutearlier,feedbackduringthe writingprocessandsubsequentrevisioniscentraltotheprocess approachtotheteachingofwriting.Suchfeedback,itisclaimed, helpsstudentsreflectontheirwritingandimproveitscontent, organisationandresponsivenesstoaudienceconsiderations.The contentionhereisthatoncetheprimacyofcontenthasbeen establishedandstudentshavecometoseetheirwritingastruly communicative,theneedtomakespecificprovisionfortheencour-agementofre-writingstrategiesisreducedsincestudentswill reviseasamatterofcourseanyway.Rather,feedbackbetween draftsisrecommendedheremainlytoreinforcethestudents'sense ofwritingasasharedcommunicativeactivityandtoimpresson themtheteacher'ssympatheticconcernwiththeirefforts. *AfterWriting‐Teacherfeedbackonfinaldraftsmustaboveall bepositive.Quitesimply"noticingandpraisingwhateverastudent -19一

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doeswellimproveswritingmorethananykindoramountof correctionofwhathedoesbadly.  (Diederich(27)).Praiseisnotall, however,fortheirisalsoaneedtocommunicatetothestudentsan increasingintoleranceofcorrectableerrorwhichalonewill motivatestudentstoedit.Thisneednottaketheformoflotsof redinkonessaysbutshouldratherbeaccomplishedbymeansof theteachermaintainingasteadilylengtheninglistofunacceptable errorstobepresentedperiodicallytothestudentsasawhole togetherwithsomeformofheuristiceditingprocedure. Inplacingsubstantialessaysatcentrestageinthissecondphaseof thewritingprogram,Iamnotofcoursesuggestingthatwritingprac-ticeendthere.Thereisastrongcasetobemadeforintroducing activitiessimplyonthebasisoftheirbringinganelementoffunor enjoymenttothecourse,andanothercasefordealingwithsometypes ofletterwritingbothformalandinfomal.Injustificationforincluding letterwritingintheprogramme,itispossibletopointtothefactthat studentsgenerallyseetheactivityasrelevant,thatletterwriting conventionsareoftenignoredinreadingclassesandthattheconcrete, transactionalnatureofthetaskprovidesagoodcontextforlanguage practice.Asformethodology,oneneedlooknofurtherthanthat generallyusedwithinproductapproachestotheteachingofwriting, namelyparallelwritingforinformalletters,whichcanbepracticedas anextensionofjournalwork,andwritingfrommodelsforformal letters,whoseformatandorganisationarehighlyconventionalized. 6.3.PhaseThree‐Assignment Itisunfortunatethatlearningtowriteservesnoeasilyidentifiable instrumentalpurposeforthestudents.Onepossibilityofremedying

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thisdeficiencywouldbetorequiresubstantialwrittenEnglishelse-whereinthecurriculum,eitherintheformofendofyearreportsin contentclassesorasagraduationthesis.Intheabsenceofeither,it seemsadvisabletoprovidethewritingcoursewithasubstantialendof yearreportorassignmentofitsowntowardswhichcourseworkcan ultimatelybedirected.Suchanassignmentshouldbelengthy,ona serioustopic,taketimetocompleteandbepresentedformallytypedin aprescribedformat.Itshouldalsocarrysubstantialweightinthefinal allocationofcoursegrades. 7.Conclusion Theapproachtotheteachingofwritingoutlinedaboveproceeds fromaconsiderationoftheneeds,skillsandattitudesthatstudents bringwiththemtotheclassroomandcomprisesamethodologythat seeslanguagelearningasresultingfromtheeffortsmadebylearnersto conceive,expressandpurposefullycommunicateideastoaconcerned audience.Itplacesatcentrestagetheneedforstudentstogain satisfactionfromwriting,byengaginginbothpersonaldevelopment throughdiscoveryandsocialdevelopmentthroughcommunication,and relegatesthemoretechnicalandlessfundamentalconcernsofcontrol overlinguisticstructureandmasteryoverwritingprocesstothestatus ofconstraintstobemanipulatedbytheteacheronlytotheextentthat theirdeficiencymilitatesagainstwritingsuccess.Itconsequently representsahighroadroutetowritingproficiency,ofteachercommit-menttostudentandstudentcommitmenttowriting,thatisnotonly studentcenteredbuthighlycommunicativeandhumanistic. -21一

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Bibliography (1)Krashen,S.D.1984.Writing‐Research,TheoryandApplications,Oxford PergamonInstituteofEnglish. {2)Krashen1984,p.39 (3)Krashen1984,p.4-12 (4)Emig,J.1971.刀 勉6C∂ 吻os伽gProcessesげTwelfthGraders,Urbana,11-linois:NationalCouncilofTeachersofEnglish. (5)Perl,S.1979."TheComposingProcessesofUnskilledCollegeWriters," ResearchintheTeachingofEnglish13(4):317-336. (fi)Zamel,V.1982."Writing:TheProcessofDiscoveringMeaning,"TFSOL Quarterlylfi(2):195-209. (7)Zamel,V.1983."TheComposingProcessesofAdvancedESLLearners:Six CaseStudies,"TESOLQuarterly17(2):165-187. (8)Arndt,V.1987."SixWritersinSearchofTexts:AProtocolBasedStudy ofLlandL2Writing,"ELTJ41(4}:257-267. (9)Raimes,A.1985."WhatUnskilledESLstudentsDoasTheyWrite:A CIassroomStudyofComposing,"TFSOLQzrarterly19(2):229-258. (10)Taylor,B.P.1981."ContentandWrittenForm:ATwo-wayStreet," TFSOLQuarterly15(1}:5-13. (11)Zamel,V.1982.p.200. (12)Zamel,V.1982.p.199. (13)Zamel,V.1983.p.181. (14)Widdowson,H.G.1983."NewStartsandDifferentKindsofFailure,"in Freedman,A.,1.PringleandJ.Yalden(eds),Learning如 側 ガ 彪.・ 」E'irstLan-guage/SecondLanguage,NewYork:Longman,p.44. (15)Raimes,A.1983."AnguishasaSecondLanguage:RemediesforComposi-tionTeachers,"inFreedman,PringleandYalden,p.260. (16)Taylor,B.P.1981.pp.7-8. (17)Odell,L.1974."MeasuringtheEffectofInstructioninPre-writing," ResearchintheTeaching(ゾ 、助glish8(2):228--240. (18)Hilgers,T.L.1980."TrainingCollegeCompositionStudentsintheUseof FreeWritingandProblemSolvingHeuristicsforRhetoricalInvention," ResearchintheTeachingofEnglish14{4}:293-307. (19)Raimes,A.1985.p.250. (20)Arndt,V.1987.pp.260-261. (21)Arndt,V.1987,p.26fi. (22)Widdowson,H.G.1983.p.47. (23)Blanton,L.L.1987."ReshapingESLStudentsPerceptionsofWriting," ELTア41(2),p.112. (24)Widdowson,H.G.1983,p.45. (25)Blanton,L.L.1987.p.113. (26)Zamel,V.1982.p.204. (27)Diederich,P.1974.MeasuringGrowthinEnglish,Champaigne,Illinois NationalCouncilofTeachersofEnglish,p.20.

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