言語学習と LL 教育 : 現状分析と未来展望

　 IVIE ］』1⊂，1皿 90F

　

SAGAMI

INSTITUTE

　

OF

　

TECHNOLOC ｝Y 　 　 　 Vo1

．

6

，

　No

．

1

．

1972

Language

　

learning

　and 　

Language

　

Laboratory

一

一

_Analyzing



_the



_States



_Today

_and

_Tomorrow



_in



_Japan

Masakatsu

　

NAKAMuRA

言 語 学 習

と

LL

教 育

一

_現状分析

_と

_未来

_展

_望

一

中

　村 　

匡

　克

　こ の_論文に おい て， 言 語 学 習 と言 語 教 育との関係を， 近 年， 異 常な まで の 発 展をなし とげた LL 教 育との関 連に お い て論 ずる

。

　LL とは Language 　Laboratory の省 略で， 言 語 訓 練 （室 ）

，

語 学 練 習 （室 ） とか種々 訳 さ れてい る が， 適 訳 が ない ま ま に

LL

とか ラ ボ と か称さ れ てい る もの である。 　言 語 を 学習す る とい _うこ と は ， ど うい うこ となの で あろ うか 。 言語学習は人 間に 許 さ れた最 大の特 権で あるが， 「物を学ぶ

一

まね ぶ 」 とい うこ とは， 単に人 間だ けに 許さ れ た特 権で はな く

，

動 物に も許さ れて い るこ と である。 両 者の差 異は

，

言語を媒 体と し て い る か否か， とい うこ とで ある。 言 語 を 通して ， 我々 は， 母 国 語 とは異 質の言 語 習 慣 お よ び発想 方法を獲得 するの で _ある

。

文 学の_{鑑 賞}に おい て

，

imitation を重 要な要 素と し たア リ ス ト テ レ ス の論理 は

，

言語習 得の面におい ても適用 さ れ る

。

　言 語を習得する大きな要 素は

，

環 境 と動 機 付 けで あり

，

それ らが国 家的視 野に お い て

，

文化的， 学 問 的

，

経済 的

，

政治 的

一

例え ば 日中 国 交回復とい っ た よう な

一

交 流 が 強 く要 請 されるならば， 迅 速に し て効 果 的 な もの とな る。 我々は語 学につ い て学ぶ者 を 養 成する とい うよ り は， む し ろ語 学 を 学ぶ者 を 養 成 しな け れ ば なら ない 。 言語習慣の 獲 得は， 実地練習を通し てのみ な さ れ る の であっ て， それはあた か も， 音楽を学ぶ 者 が， バ イ ォ リン にっ い て学ん で も， 実 際に 自分で 練 習 をしな け れば， 演 奏で き ない の と 同 じで ある。 　そこ で 四技能の習得が要 求 され るの で あるが

，

こ れは

LL

に おい て効 果 的なもの と な る。 日本人は

，

本 来， 視 覚 的 民 族であっ て

，

聴覚 的民族で は ない

。

併し

，

語 学 教 育に お い て は

，

従来の よ う に視覚性に依 存 してい るわ けに はい かない の で ある。 聴 覚 性に対 す る要 求は

．

LL を含む種々 の 聴 覚器材 の 利 用を う な が す。　

LL

の特 徴は ， 同 時 性と 独習 性に ある。 学 習者 1よ種々の異 なる レ ベ ル に お い て， 他 老に 干 渉されるこ とな く， 自由に 己 れの好 む所

，

不得 手の と ころを学習 し

，

教 授者は

，

それ を学習 者に 気 ずか れ るこ と な くモ ニ タ

ー

し

，

必 要に応_じて

，一

対

一

の会 話を なし_， 適宜修正 して い くこ と がで _きる。 初 期の段階に お い て要 求さ れる hearing と speaking の場 合 に は

，

特に LL の必 要 性 が 高い の で ある。

　い わゆる grammar

−

translation　method が今日 ま で の語 学 教 育に おい て， 重 要な役

割を果た し てきたのであるが， 今や， 新 しい 語 学 教 育は ， そ れ を 越 えた ところに見 出 さ

れん と してい る

。

そ れ を 可 能に し たの が， LL を 始め と する視 聴 覚 教 育 教 材な の で あ

る。 これに よっ て

，

第

一

に

hearing，

第二 に speaking

，

第三に reading

，

最 後に writing とい う言 語 習得の理 想 的 順 序 が 具 体 化 され るの で ある。 従 来は， reading ，　writing の 順 序で， この二 者の みが専ら行な わ れ てきたの で ある。 そ のた め に膨大 なエ ネル ギ

ー

が 無駄に 消費されて しまっ た の で ある

。

言 語を学ぶ 事は

，

他 者 との

‘

_sensible 　first

・

hand communication ’ を可 能 とするこ とで ある。 ゲ

ー

テ が言 うよ うに ， 自国 語 し か しらない ものは

，

自国語をもしらない のである。

一 39 一

NII-Electronic Library Service

Masakatsu

NAKAMURA

1.

What

is

Language

Learning?

Teaching

is

learning-this

is

a

famous

aphorism conveyed

to

those

who

have

a

keen

interest

in

learning

and

teaching.

Teaehing

language

is

a

_great

thing

_{which contains}

the

eultural, mental, and

habitual

aspeets of a nation as

its

background,

but

before

we can correetly

consider

teaehing

languages

we must

first

_pay

attention

to

the

other

side of

this

_phenomenon,

that

is,

Ianguage

"Iearning"

_itself.

_How

well a

_person

speaks or

listens

or writes or reads

the

language

is

itself

very

diMcult

to

diseover

_preeisely,

even

from

the

_{psychological}

point

of

view.

ff

we

know

mueh more about

the

nature of

learning

in

human

beings

we should

be

better

equipped

to

_prescribe

_{methods of}

teehing.

We

know,

in

fact,

rather

better

about

learning

in

human

beings,

_although

a

lot

of experiments and studies about

learning

in

other animals are

being

amassed.

No

one

takes

it

for

_granted

that

what

is

valid

for

dogs

is

also valid

for

human

beings.

Nevertheless

it

seems

to

be

true

that

many of

the

observed

facts

about

Iearning

in

experimentalanimals

such as

dogs

can

be

transferred

to

human

learning

without mueh

change.

At

the

same

time

the

average

human

student exposed

to

language

teaching

_proeedures

stays

in

a situation much more complex

than

that

enjoyed

by

the

experimental animals.

Let

us consider about

language

learning

in

human

beings.

_We

recognize all nerrnal

human

infants

are

born

with

the

_potentiality

of

acquiring

language.

Generally

speaking, subnormal

intelligence

or

defective

hearing

can

prevent

an

individual

ehi]d

from

_realizing

this

potentiality,

but

in

the

typical

case a

human

child acquires

the

ability

to

perform

in

the

two

basic

language

skills

of understanding speech

and speaking.

Fundamentally

heredity,

race, nationality are

irrelevant

to

the

infant,

except where

_physical

characteristics

affect

such

features

as

voice

_quality.

The

ehild of

Japanese-speaking

_parents

inherits

_no

inborn

faeility

for

learning

to

understand and speak

Japanese

rather

than

some other

language.

He

will

learn

the

language

that

is

being

used

around

him,

whatever

language

it

may

be.

It

is

true

that

it

is

usual

for

the

child

to

_use

the

language

of

his

_parents,

the

mother

tongue.

But

it

'is

not neeessary or essential

that

it

should

be

the

parents

that

he

hears

in

his

infancy.

He

is

assai]ed

from

birth

by

constantly

changing

variety of sensations

some

of

them

_visual,

_some

auditory, some

tactile,

some

_guestatory,

some olfactory.

The

_process

of

growing

older

_provides

him

with a store of memories, memories of

the

sequence

in

which some of

these

sensations were

_perceived,

and

memory of which sensations

habitually

_go

with others.

The

learner

t

-40m

Language

Learning

and Language Laboratorv

sueh _{as a}

baby

_early

discovers

that

_{some of}

the

_sounds

it

hears

_are

made

by

itself.

There

is

a stage of

development

in

whieh

he

rehearses

the

_process

of notieing

that

it

has

stopped making a noise,

then

starting

to

make

it

_again,

then

stopping onee more.

Later,

the

noticing,

like

the

sound

_production,

beeomes

steadily more sophisticated.

Instead

of

random

babbling

with a repertory whieh

is

sometimes supposed

to

include

all

the

sounds

found

in

all

the

Ianguages

of

the

world and some

that

are

to

be

found

in

no

language,

the

child seleets out some of

the

sounds and sound-sequences

that

it

has

noticed

in

its

own

vicinity,

and

imitates

these

_practicing

and

repeating

and

imitating

his

own

efforts, until a semi-deliberate eontrol of speech

_production

_gradually

becomes

more

and

more automatic.

Imitation

is

one of

the

fundamental

modes which eovers

both

the

fields

of

language

and

literature.

In

other words, what

Aristotle

defined

concerning

the

_general

origin of

poetry

is

available

for

Iearning

and

teaching

Ianguages.

"Imitation

is

natural

to

man

from

childhood, one

of

his

advantages

over

the

lower

animals

being

this,

that

he

is

the

most

imitative

ereature

in

the

world, and

learns

at

first

by

imitation.

And

it

is

also natural

for

all

to

delight

in

works of

imitation.

The

truth

of

this

seeond

_point

is

shown

by

experience:

though

the

objeets

themselves

may

be

_painful

to

see, we

delight

to

view

the

most realistic

representations of

them

in

art,

the

forms,

for

example, of

the

lowest

animals and of

dead

bodies････to

be

learning

something

is

the

greatest

of

_pleasures

not only

to

the

_philosopher

but

also

to

the

rest of mankind,

however

small

their

eapacity

for

it;

the

reason of

the

delight

in

seeing

the

_picture

is

that

one

is

at

the

same

time

]earning-gathering

the

meaning of

things,

e.g.

that

the

man

there

is

so-and-so".i'

This

is

a

somewhat

long

citation

but

here

we

also

read

an

important

quality

of

the

learner

which will

be

mentioned

later

as motivation.

The

language

habits

are

usually eoncerned with

_phonetics,

but

as

the

child

grows

older

he

begins

te

organize

his

speeeh

into

_patterns

of

grammar,

to

acquire a stock of

items,

lexical

and

_grammatical,

to

operate

in

these

_patterns,

and

to

fit

his

speeeh

to

the

appropriate

situations.

He

makes many mistakes, and

it

takes

a

long

time

before

his

command of

the

whole apparatus of

language

is

sure and acceptable,

but

the

_process

of

habit-making

is

similar

for

all children

in

all

human

societies

of

the

world.

The

_proeess

of aequiring

linguistie

habits

is

farniliar

to

most

_people.

Learning

a

language

is

to

acquire

foreign

linguistic

habits

which

have

heterogeneous

elements

to

his

mother

tongue.

It

is

worth

while

making one

_point;

that

is,

that

the

child

1)

Aristotle:

On

the

Art

of

PbetTy,

translated

by

Ingram

Bywater,

Section

IV.

-41-NII-Electronic Library Service

Masakatsu

NAKAMuRA

knows

and needs

to

know

no

linguistics

or

_phonetics.

When

we acquire our

_primary

language,

wq

do

so

by

learning

how

to

behave

in

situa-tions,

not

by

Iearning

rules about what

to

say.

Whatever

the

_place

of

_phonetics

and

linguistics

may

be

in

language

teaching,

the

formula-tion

of

linguistic

statements

is

by

no _{means essential}

to

language

learning.

2.

Circumstance

and

Motivation

for

Language

Learning

'

Many

of

learners

can

learn

two

or

three

language

simultaneously

if

they

are exposed

to

them

during

formative

_years.

These

are

the

bilinguals.

But

the

_great

majority

of

learners

do

not

learn

a

secondary

language

until

they

have

first

acquired some

degree

of

their

primary-mainly mother-language.

All

_normal

Iearners

learn

only one

language,

that

is,

his

mother

tongue.

For

those

who

later

learn

a

secondary

language,

it

is

more easily acquired when very

_young.

Some

psycholo-gist

suggests

that

it

is

at about

the

age of eight or nine

that

matura-tion

begins

to

render

it

somewhat

more

difficult

to

learn

a

language･

Learners

sueh as children

learn

their

language

without

systematic

instruction

in

it.

It

is

_perfectly

_possible

_to

_acquire

_{one or} more

secon-dary

languages

in

the

same way.

We

have

a

faet

that

is

sometimes

obscured

by

the

manner

in

which we organize

foreign-language

teaching

as

_part

of

the

_general

education

system.

In

other words,

because

most

foreign

languages

are

learned

in

the

junior

high

schools

here

in

Japan,

this

does

not mean

that

this

is

the

only

way

in

which

they

could, or

even should,

be

acquired.

And

even

if

they

are aequired

best

during

the

school

days,

it

is

not

_preferable

that

they

_{ean only}

be

learned

in

the

manner

in

which

they

are acquired

in

school

at

present,

that

is,

through

deliberate

and

forceful

instructien

of a

formal

nature.

It

is

very

important

to

separate

the

consideration of

how

languages

can

be

]earned

from

how

they

can

be

taught.

The

learner

does

not

have

to

have

a

teacher.

There

are a small number of _{eireumstances}

that

wi11

favour

the

_process

of

learning

the

language.

If

these

cireumstances

do

not exist

in

the

ordinary course of events,

then

one of

the

useful

func-tions

of

the

teacher,

ean

be

to

_provide

the

_physieal

conditions

that

wil]

render

more

bearable

and rapid a

_process

that

could nevertheless

take

place

without

them.

Providing

the

objeetive conditions of

learning

is

one of

the

essential

tasks

of

the

teacher.

What

are

those

favourable

circumstanees

that

can

favour

language

learning

?

One

is

being

young.

The

earlier

learning

begins,

the

better.

Another

is

the

amount of experienee of

the

language

received

by

the

Language

LeaTning

and

Language

LctboTatorv

learner,

_provided

that

this

experience

is

meaningful.

That

is

to

say,

learning

takes

_plaee

more readily

if

the

language

is

encountered

in

active use

than

it

is

seen or

heard

only as a set of

disembodied

ut-teranee

of exercises.

But

_quantity

of experienee _alone

is

not

the

only

factor

which

determines

the

rate of

]earning.

It

seems

to

be

the

ease

that

the

memory span of

the

learner

is

relatively short

in

language

learning,

so

that

learning

is

more certain and rapid

if

lessens

are

frequent.

From

this

point

of

view,

a series of

intensive

Course

in

English

written

by

Washington

Educational

Researeh

Assoeiates,

Ine.

is

one of

the

most surpassing we can make use of,

because

it

_pays

attention

to

reinforeent

by

using

two

units as one unity.

Motivation

is

another

favourable

factor.

Human

beings,

whether

they

are

children

or

adu]ts,

learn

more rapidly and effectively

if

they

have

some reason

to

do

so.

The

reason sometimes may not

be

con-sciously

known

to

the

}earner.

It

may

be

simply _another

feature

of

the

social

_pressures

that

impinge

on every

individual

in

a eommunity

and

impel

him

to

develop

as

he

does.

Or

it

may

be

a

deliberate

wish or

intention

to

aequire a

_particular

skill and ability.

The

eonverse

is

also

true;

a child who

has

been

antagonized

in

some ways

towards

a

skill or a subjeet

learns

with only

the

_greatest

diMculty,

if

indeed

he

learns

at all.

Acquiring

a

_positive

reason

for

learning

a

language

wil]

thus

help

a

pupil

to

learn

it,

while a negative motivation may make

it

impossible

for

a

_pupil

to

learn

at all effectively.

An

early start, extensive experience at

frequent

intervals,

and

strong motivation are

favourable

circumstances and are

_present

highly

for

the

normal

learner

at

least

for

the

understanding of speech and

the

ability

to

speak

intelligibly

and acceptably.

When

the

time

comes

for

society

to

require of

the

individual

that

he

should add

to

the

skil]s

of speech

those

of reading and writing,

there

remains a strong

motiva-tion

for

doing

this,

since

the

Iearner

_generally

diseovers

at an early age

that

those

who

do

not

become

literate

are relegated

to

membership

of an unfavoured

_group

within

the

community.

For

the

majority of

learners

the

only motivation

for

learning

English

or

French

or

German

or any other

language

is

in

order

to

make up

the

right

degree

of examination subjects,

if

indeed

the

matter

is

consciously

eonsidered

at

all.

It

has

commonly

been

remarked

in

the

past

that

more

_people

tend

to

learn

languages

more effeetively

in

those

countries

which

greatly

depend

on commercial

and

political

intercourse

with

a

large

number of

different

language

communities.

The

motivation

is

there,

in

fact,

on a national seale, and

there

is

a

_precedent

too:

there

-43-NII-Electronic Library Service Masakatsu NAKAMURA

is

a national

language-learning

habit.

It

seems certain

that

cultural,

academie,

_politieal

and economical

intercourses

such as

the

restoration

of

diplomatie

relations

between

Japan

and

the

Communist

China

in

learning

Chinese,

would

produce

a rapid

inerease

in

national motivation

towards

the

more effective

]earning

of

languages.

Therefore

it

is

a

great

problem

how

to

produce

a national-wide motivation

in

language

learning.

Learning

a

language

means

learning

aeceptable and effeetive

language

behaviour

in

situations

in

unfamiliar culture, not means

learning

about a

language.

This

is

one

further

distinetion

whieh,

though

it

is

a

familiar

matter, must

be

taken

into

aecount

if

the

_prodesses

of

language

teaching

are

to

be

effectively related

to

those

of

language

learning.

Those

who

learn

about a

language

are

equivalent

to

those

who

know

the

musical notes and ru]es

but

can't sing.

A,

S.

Hayes

suggests

the

sarne

thing

by

saying as

fol]ows;

"

The

only

known

way

to

form

habits

is

through

_practiee.

Learning

a

foreign

language

is

in

this

respect much

like

learning

to

_play

a musieal

instrument.

No

one

_questions

that

the

music student must

_practiee,

if

he

wants

to

learn

to

_play,

say,

the

_piano;

since

it

is

obvious

that

no amount of study of musical notation

alone

will

teach

anyone

to

play".2)

'

3.

Four

Skills

of

Learning

Language

Teaching

a

foreign

language

not only means

teaching

about

that

language

but

also means

teaehing

in

that

language.

The

tasks

and aims of

foreign

language

teaching

include

the

imparting

to

the

learner

of _some or _{all of}

the

basic

language

_ski]ls,

that

is,

listening,

_speaking,

reading and writing.

One

way of aequiring

these

skills

is

by

experi-encing

them.

Experience

is

sometimes, especially

in

the

field

of audio-visual

Ianguage

learning,

defined

by

the

"eone

of experience" of

Edgar

E.

Dale.3)

By

showing

this

cone

he

explains

the

steps of

_growing

_process

from

eoncrete experiences

to

abstract

ones.

Language

skills

cover

these

steps aeeording

to

the

learner's

_growth

and ability.

By

en-countering

these

skills

in

real situations

the

learner

comes

to

assoeiate

certain activities,

_persons

or

topics

with

the

foreign

language.

This

must

happen

even

in

their

sehool

days.

Some

sehools

have

this

method

but

they

are not so numerous at

_present

stage

in

Japan,

espacially

in

primary

and

junior

high

school.

The

Ianguage

is

taught,

at

least

in

_part,

by

the

device

of

teaehing

2) A.S. Hayes:

Language

Laboratory

FZvaitities,

p.15, Oxford U.P, 1968.

3)

Edgar

E.

Dale:

Azadio

Viszaat

Mizthods

in

1laaching,

The Dyden Press.

1954.

-

₄₄

Languare Learning and Language Laboratorv

in

the

language.

It

is

true

that

there

is

one category of

learner

who

can

make effective

use

of

statements

about

a

language.

This

is

the

adult

learner,

espeeially one with experienee of using and

learning

about another

language.

It

is

also

true

that

advaneed

_pupi]s,

even

those

at a

_younger

age, may

be

guided

towards

greater

sophisti-cation and understanding

by

being

taught

about

the

meehanism of

the

language

by

learning

about

its

_grammar

and

_phonology.

But

their

new

understanding

eomes

from

being

shown

the

_patterns

inherent

in

the

skills which

they

already

_possess.

The

skills

them-selvs can only very rarely

be

imparted

in

the

lanauage

_by

teaching

the

learner

about

them.

Teaehing

about a

language

has

a seduetive merit of

being

relatively

easy

to

carry out.

The

use of _a

grammar

book

turns

a skill subjeet

into

a eontent subjeet, one

in

whieh

the

teacher

ean

teach

faets

instead

of

imparting

skills.

But

a eouple of

hours

spent

in

teaeh-ing

the

facts

of

_grammar,

pho-neties or

_philology

(or

linguisties)

is

itself.

Teaehing

a

language

involves

first,

the

learner

must experienee

the

ways, either

in

its

spoken or

in

its

learner

must

himself

have

the

out

his

own skills, of making

the

essence of

language

learning,

not contribute

direetly

to

either of

achieved

in

the

lesson

of

language

visual aids, espeeially

in

whose

]anguage

is

completely

English,

French,

German

and so on

studying.

What

is

worse,

not an audio-typed one,

and

we

feel

-

45

The Cone of Experience

not

the

hours

of

teaching

language

uniting

two

essential

features;

language

being

used

in

meaningful

written

form;

and

secondly,

the

opportunity of

_performing,

of

trying

mistakes

and

being

correeted.

These

are

and

teaehing

about a

language

does

them.

This

is

mostly and

greatly

laboratory

as well

as

of using

audio-the

condition sueh as

Japanese

school education

different

from

the

languages

such as

we

Japanese

people

are

generally

Japanese

are said

to

be

a visual-typed nation,

NII-Electronic Library Service

Masakatsu

NAKAMtiRA

these

audio'aids and

language

laboratory.

Therefore

these

_are sometimes

neglected and

disliked

by

some

_people,

though

_their

_use

_is

_{a national}

as well as an

international

tendency.

Language

laboratory

teaching

has

many speeific advantages, which we eonsider chiefly

by

the

opinion

of

A.

S.

Hayes.4)

In

a

Ianguage

laboratroy

all students

in

their

booths

can

_praetice

aloud simultaneously as well as

individually.

These

two

are most

remarkable

features

which can't

be

seen

in

a normal _class-roorn.

In

_a

class of sixty students which

is

a

typical

student number

in

one elass

of

Japanese

school,

fifty-nine

are

idle

while one

is

busy.

The

teacher

is

free

to

focus

his

attention on

the

individual

student's

_performanee

without

interrupting

the

work

of

the

_group.

Certain

language

laboratory

facilities

can

provide

for

differences

in

learning

rates

by

using

_plural

Iines.

It

can also

_provide

authentic,

consistent,

untiring

models of

speech

for

imitation

and

drill.

The

use of

headphones

_gives

_{a sense}

of

isolation,

intimate

¢ontact with

the

language,

_{equal clarity of sound}

to

all students, and

facilitates

cornplete eoncentration

and

gives

a

keen

interest

for

learning

language.

Recordings

ean

_provide

many native

voices.

The

language

laboratory

faeilitates

_testing

of _{each student}

for

listening

comprehension and of

the

speaking

ability.

It

also enhances

the

student's

_potential

for

evaluating

his

own

_performanee.

Given

specially-designed

instructional

_material,

_the

language

_laboratory

_can

provide

teehnical

facilities

for

eMeient

self-instruction.

Therefore

pro-grammed

materials used

in

the

language

laboratory

must

be

fully

eonsidered.

We

have

laid

too

much emphasis upon

the

language

_skil]s.

But

_of

course we are not guggesting

that

a

learner

doesn't

need

to

know

anything about

the

language

he

is

learning.

In

many

instances,

teaeh-ing

about

the

language

is

allowed

to

take

the

_plaee

of

teaching

the

language,

thereby

eonsuming valuable

time

witheut

_produeing

adequate

results.

This

seems

to

be

_{symptomatic of a}

_twofold

_{confusion which}

often

aMicts

the

teaehing

of

foreign

Ianguages.

In

the

first

_place,

there

is

confusion about

whether

the

_particular

learners

should

be

Iearning

about

the

]anguage

at all, and

if

so

to

what extent and

for

what

_purposes.

Knowledge

about a

language

may

be

beneficial

in

its

own right as

_providing

_an

intelleetual

_exercises;

_this

does

_not

neces-sarily

determine

its

_place,

or

_even

determine

_that

it

has

_a

_place,

_in

_a

language

course.

Some

teachers

impart

knowledge

about

the

language

they

are

teaching

because

such

knowledge

is

necessary

for

_passing

examinations.

This

is

a

clear evidenee

that

the

examinations should

,

4) op. cit.,

_pp.

15N16.

-46-NII-ElectronicMbrary

Language Learning and Language

Laboratery

be

reviewed, espeeially one concerning

the

entrance examinations of

university

for

senior

high

school

_pupils.

This

is

one of

the

most urgent

problems

te

be

solved

in

Japan.

Others

teaeh

about a

Ianguage

because

the

textbook

they

are using

teaches

about

the

language,

and

familiar

teaching

aids

tend

to

perpetuate

themselves.

All

these

might

be

con-sidered non-linguistie reasons

for

teaching

about a

language.

They

are

extraneous

to

the

language-teaching

task.

In

the

second

_place

there

is

a more

fundarnental

confusion about

how

Ianguage

_{skills are aetually}

acquired.

Some

teachers

maintain

that

learning

to

_perform

in

a

foreign

language

presupposes

knowing

about

that

language,

and

that

therefore

some

degree

of overt

_grammar

teaehing

is

essential

if

the

job

_of

teaching

is

to

be

carried out

_properly.

There

is

a

_potential

role

in

the

total

educational

_proeess

for

learning

about a

language.

But

it

is

not

true

that

practical

performanee

neeessarily

depends

upon

it.

Knowledge

about a

language

is

valuable

for

advanced

learners,

and especially

for

learned

adults and adolescents who already

have

a wide and

firm

com-mand of

the

language

eoncerned, and

_perhaps

before

that

who

have

learnt

about other

Ianguages

in

the

same way.

But

in

the

initial

stages,

it

rarely

helps

and can often

hinder

the

attainment of

_practieal

language

skills

by

the

learner.

In

an early step,

the

_problem

is

how

to

aequire

practical

skills.

From

this

viewpoint

we

will

have

the

question

of what

the

aims

of

teaching

foreign

languages

really are.

There

has

been

a

great

deal

of

eriticism

about

this

subject

in

Japan

and abroad

in

recent

_years.

Some

point

out

the

fact

most

high

school

_pupils

and even university

students cannot

adequately

understand

or make

themselves

understood

in

English

even when

they

may

have

been

leaTning

it

for

more

than

six

_years.

This

is,

in

fact,

a

kind

of national

disaster

in

education.

Some

maintain

that

some of

these

school

Ieavers

or

_graduates

have

shoWn

the

ability

to

read a

_play

by

W.

S.

Maugham

and

to

write

some

English

compositions.

Majority

of

these

learners,

others

insist,

cannot

read, write,

listen

and speak,

but

through

many

translations

they

understand and

have

a

touch

with some

thinking

way of

foreign

language

and

eultural aspects, and

_greatly

contribute

to

present

educational

baekground.

But

in

order

to

understand a

foreign

culture or country or

human.nature,

to

knew

the

language

itself

is

the

fundamental

and

essential necessity.

The

teaching

of

_practical

ablity

in

a

language

is

a

task

_quite

different

from

that

of

teaching

the

understanding and

appreeiation of

literature

in

that

written

language.

Not

only are

the

two

different

in

kind,

but

also

practical

ability must

inevitably

precede

literary

appreciation of works

in

a

foreign

language.

The

attempt

to

-47-NII-Electronic Library Service

Masakatsu

NAKAMURA

introduce

foreign

Iiterature

to

a

leraner

before

he

has

sufieient eom-mand

of

the

language

in

which

it

is

written

frequently

leads

to

frustra-tion,

boredom

and antipathy on

his

side, so

that

there

is

mueh

te

be

lost

and

little

to

be

_gained

in

his

energy and

brain.

In

our view

the

_primary

task

of

language

teaching

is

to

impart

practical

command of

_,the

four

basic

skills,

that

is,

reading and

listening

as reception, writing and speaking as

_production,

for

use

in

the

widest

possible

range of

different

situations.

In

hearing

and speaking,

intona-tion,

stress and

_{pronuneiation}

as well as situation _are

important

com-ponents,

which are more easily and effectively carried out

in

the

lessons

of

language

laboratory.

Reading

does

not mean _a

kind

_of

grammar-translation

method,

but

it

rather means

interpretation.

In

writing,

the

most

important

thing

is

what

to

write, not

how

to

write.,

Therefore

we eannot

help

regarding

the

average

_product

of a school

language

learning

career' as'being sadly and

_grossly

deficient,

though

I

myself

engage

in

the

business.

4.

Language

Laboratory

Beyond

Grammar.Translation

Method

As

the

traditional

teaehing

methed of

language

teaching

the

grammar-translation

method

has

_played

an

･important

role.

It

leans

heavily

upon

the

formal

description

of

the

language

being

taught

and

upon

the

exereise of

translation

into

and ou't of

the

mother

tongue.

This

method would

be

somewhat more effeetive

if

the

_grammar

were

linguistieally

more valid and were more

directly

relevant

than

it

usually

is

to

some

eurrent

variety of

the

language

being

taught,

preferably

a

spoken variety.

But

even

if

the

grammar

were

both

well

described

and relevant,

it

would still not

be

an adequate substitute

for

the

teach-ing

of

_practical

skills

in

the

Ianguage,

since

it

simply

is

a

form

of

statement about

the

language.

Certain

highly

selected

Iearners

may

be

able

to

convert

_grammatical

description

inte

practical

eperation,

but

grammar

is

generally

presented

as

the

main

form

of

instruction

to

younger,

inexperieneed

and unsophisticated

learners,

for

whom

this

is

not

the

most effective approach.

The

role of

translation

in

language

teaching

is

of

course

a

separate

matter.

Its

use

is

neither

_presupposed

by

the

teaching

of

_grammar,

nor

does

it

_presuppose

it.

In

the

eon-ventional

_pattern

of

foreign

]anguage

teaching,

however,

trans]ation

alternates

with

formal

grammar

as

the

main activity

in

class and

home

task.

But

nowadays

this

method

is

_gradually

being

replaced

by

other

procedures,

and some of changes are

taking

_place,

and

imprevements

to

-48H

NII-ElectronicMbraryService

Language

Learning

and

Language

Laboratory

which

they

are

leading

can and

will

be

extended

and aeeelerated, once

a

fairly

small number of crucial

features

of

language

teaehing

have

been

grasped

by

public

opinion

and

teaehers

eoncerned.

One

of

these

features

is

the

clear recognition of

the

difference

of objeetive which

separates

the

teaehing

of

_practical

ability

in

language

skills

from

literary

and eultural studies.

Next

is

the

need

to

_pay

more attention

to

the

spoken

language,

which

does

not mean simply

including

spoken

language.

But

it

does

include

laying

the

foundation

of all

instruction

upon

the

spoken

Ianguage,

espeeially

during

early stages sueh _as

the

days

of

_primary

_or

junior

high

school, not as

the

days

of senior

high

school or university, and

delaying

the

introduetion

of reading and writing.

Teaching

`

Romaji

'

in

_primary

school

is

not only _unimportant

but

meaningless.

Prirnary

school

children rather ought

to

be

taught

spoken

language,

which

is

not

praetieed

in

Japan

but

will make

Ianguage

learning

more

_pleasant,

interesting

and effeetive,

_giving

us an abundant crop

in

it.

The

total

proeess

of

language

learning

is

more rapid and effective,

if

a command

of

the

_phonologieal

system and a

_good

range of

_grammatical

_patterns

and some

basic

lexieal

items

are

taught

in

the

spoken medium

before

the

learner

is

introdueed

to

written

forms

as was mentioned

before.

Some

say

that

_people

learning

foreign

languages

only rarely need

to

speak

them,

and

that

it

is

far

more

important

to

aequire a reading

knowledge

ofa

foreign

language.

The

reply

to

this

is

as

follows;

first,

exeept _a

few

_speeialist

_groups

_sueh

_as

engineers or scientists,

the

number of

_people

who

_genuine]y

need an abi]ity

tQ

read a

foreign

language

without

also

having

the

need or

the

opportunity

to

speak

it,

is

just

as small as

the

number of

those

who need an ability

to

under-stand and speak

it

without

being

able

to

read and write

ie.

The

discrepancy

in

numbers which

is

_popularly

held

to

exist

between

the

reading-only

group

and

the

speaking-only

group

is

hard

to

substantiate.

For

those

few

whose needs

are

genuinely

of

the

reading-only

type

such

as scientists who

find

themselves

wishing

to

learn

German

solely

in

order

to

read scientific

journals,

specialized eourses can

be

devised.

But

these

courses

_generally

take

aecount of

the

fact

that

the

learners

are

sophisticated adults.

Such

courses are not

to

be

eonfused with

the

kind

of

language

instTuction

given

in

schools, where

the

eventual

career of _any

individual

_pupi]

can't

be

_predieted

and

it

would

be

con-trary

to

edueational

_practiee

to

_give

as

the

standard course something

that

related

to

an unusual and

highly

restricted objeetive.

The

second reply

to

the

reading-only argument

is

that

it

is

easier

to

acquire an effective reading

knowledge

of a

foreign

language

after

-49-NII-Electronic Library Service

`

Masakatsu

NAKAMURA

gaining

sorne comrnand of

the

spoken

language.

Being

seen

from

the

standpoint of

linguistics,

that

is

not

at

all

surprising,

since

the

iterns

of

the

written

language

have

their

linguistie

referents

in

the

spoken

mediurn, although written

]anguage

is

not merely a visual

representa-tion

of spoken

language.

This

_pattern

of representation

is

well

established

for

the

native

laguage,

and explains why

in

the

learning

of a

foreign

language

a reading

knowledge

most readily

follows

a

speaking

knowledge.

We

must add

there

are other arguments

some-times

_put

forward

by

those

who

find

it

diMeult

to

aceept apreliminary

stage _of

language

teaching

_which

is

_oral only,

_preceding

the

stage

where

the

oral and

the

visual

combine.

It

is,

for

example,

a

_problem

about

home-task.

But

we can a]so solve

that

_problem

by

_properly

laying

audio-visual edueation

in

the

total

_education

_system

in

language

learning.

The

audio-visual aids range

from

_phonographs

and

tape-recorders

to

Ianguage

laboratories,

audio-visual

techniques

and

teaching

maehines.

Theodore

Huebener

_points

out many audio-visual

aids

as

follows;b)

visual aids are

_pietures,

flash

cards, maps, charts and eardboard

figures

as

fiat

materials;

dolls,

models

and

diorams

as

three

dimentional

_puppets;

films,

filmstrips,

motion

_pictures

_and

television

_as

_projecter

_materials.

Auditory

aids are

_phonographic

discs,

tape-recorder

and

tapes,

radio, rnetion

_picture

with sound.

Language

Iaboratory

and audio-visual _{aids ean} make

the

teaching

of

languages

more

suceessful,

effeetive,

rapid

and

interesting

than

it

is

without

them.

It

is

not

true

that

the

language

laboratory

can or

should

take

the

_plaee

of

the

teacher.

Nor

is

it

a means whereby

pupil

or

teacher

can aehieve

their

aims without

_physical

and mental

effort.

But

it

can make

the

teacher's

work more effeetive and rewarding,

especially

in

those

areas of routine

drills

and

_practiee

where

the

task

is

most mechanical

and

makes

the

least

demand

on

his

_{qualifieations}

and skill.

At

the

same

time

the

teaeher

does

need some special

training

if

he

is

to

make

the

most eMeient _use of _audio-visual

language

courses.

These

techniques

of

_presentation

are a ehallenge

to

the

teacher,

and

there

is

no

doubt

that

for

some

time

their

introduction

wil]

tax

the

individual

class

room

teaeher

to

the

utmost.

"We

learn

language",

as

Otto

Jesperson

writes,S] "so as

to

be

enabled

to

get

sensible

first-hand

eommunieations about

the

thoughts

of

5)

TheodoreHuebener:

Aecdio-T'igtent

11er:hniquesin

11ectehing

libreign

Language,

New

York

U.P.

19oo.

6)

Otto

Jespersen:

Hbtv

to

11each

a

libreign

Language, translated by Sophia

Yhlen-Olsen

Bertelsen,

George

Allen

&

Unwin,

1904.

-se-:

Language

Learning

and

Langvage

Laboratory

others, and so

as

to

have

for

ourselves a means of making others

partakers

of our own

thoughts.

"

Communication

is

now

_greatly

accepted

as

the

_purposes

of

language

learning,

meaning

by

communication a

practical

eompetenee

in

the

spoken

Ianguage

as well as

the

written

language.

We

must

learn

how

to

_{understand speeeh,}

how

to

_speak

understandably,

how

to

read and

how

to

write

in

language

learning.

Moreover

this

order

is

the

most appropriate

in

learning

language.

That

is,

a

_passive

and an active eompetence

in

spoken

language

should

be

prior

to

the

eompetences

in

written

]anguage.

It

is

very

important

to

pay

attention

to

the

fact

that

these

language

learning

_procedures

also

constitute

the

aims of

language

]earning.

As

the

last

words

for

the

aim of

language

learning,

here

we cannot

help

remembering a

famous

saying

by

Johann

Wolfgang

_von

Goethe;

that

is,

the

man _who

knows

no

foreign

language

knows

nothing of

his

mother

tongue.

Selected

References

Jespersen,

Otto.

Hbw

to

71each

a

libreign

Language,

translated

by

Sophia

Yhlen-Olsen

Bertelesen, George Allen & Unwin, 1904.

Jespersen,

Otto.

Selected

Wb'itings

of

Otto

.Jespersen,

Senjo

Publishing.

Rade, Robert.

Language

fleaehing-A

Scientifc

Approach,

McGraw Hill,Inc. 1964.

Stack,

Edward

M.

The

Language

Laboratory

anct

Mbdern

Language

7leaching,

Oxford

University

Press,

New

York,

1960.

Dixon, Robert M.W.

IVhat

is

Language?

A

IVizw

Approach

te

Linguistic

Description,

Longmans

Linguistic

Library,

1965.

Jalling,

Hans

(ed.).

Mbdern

Language

Teaching,

Oxford

U.P.

London, 1968.

Huebener, Theedore.

Azadio-Visual

11echniques

in

71eaching

Fbreign

Language, New York,

U,P.,

1960.

Dale, Edgar E.

Audio

Viswal

Methods

in

7leaching,

The Dyden Press 1954.

Hill,

L.

A.

Setected

Artieles

on the

flectching

of

Ehtglish

As

a

Fbreign

Language,

Oxford,

U. P., 1968.

Aristotle.

On

the

Art

of

Pbetry,

translated

by

Ingram Bywater.

Deese,

James.

The

Strueture

of

Associations

in

Language

an{l

Thought,

The

Johns

Hopkins

Press,

Baltimore.

Tazaki,

Kiyotada

(ed.).

Hdndbooic

ef

Audiovisttat

dethods

in

the

fleaching

ef

English,

Taishuh-kan Shoten, 1968.

Ogawa,

Yoshie

_(ed.).

Sanseido's

Dietiouary

of

Engtish

Language

7leaehing,

Sanseido,

1964.

Gorrell,

R.

M.

and

Laird,

Charlton.

Mbdern

English

Hdndbook,

Third

edition,

Hill

Inc.,

N.J.

1962.