1.Introduction:thebackgroundandtheobjectivesofthisresearch
TheauthoraimstofindoutthecurrentsituationofweavingthetraditionalCambodian pictorialikatsilk pidan (hereafter・Pidan・)through surveysin ThailandandVietnam,in additiontothatofCambodiareportedinYonekura(2014).Asaresult,theauthoraimsto contributetopreservingandprotectingtheweavingtechniquesandmotifsofPidan.Theauthor aimsto:mapwhereandonwhatscaletheproductionofPidanistakingplace;findoutwhat kindsofmotifsofPidanexist;andcollectandrecordthemotifsofPidan.Asapartofthe research,thispaperreportssomefindingsfrom thefieldsurveyconductedbytheauthorin North-EastThailandandSouthernVietnam.Theauthor,basedontheunderstandingofthe currentsituationsurroundingtheproductionofPidan,alsoaimstoexplorepossiblepaths toitssurvival.
Pidan isa special,elaborately designed pictorialikatsilk for religiousarchitectural decorations.Pidan isa silk weftikatin a 2/1twillwoven using thesametechniqueas ordinaryikatsilkinCambodia.Yet,Pidanisdistinguishedfrom otherikatsilkbyitsdesigns ofreligiousnarrativescenesrelevanttoBuddhism,myths,etc.SomecommonmotifsofPidan includenaga2,ahalf-god-likeserpentordragon,celestialnymphs,Buddha,templ e,thetree-of-life,andwhiteelephants3(SeeFigure1forsomesamplesofikatsilkandPidan). 学苑 総合教育センター国際学科特集 No.919 37～58（20175）
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Figure1.Samplephotosofordinary-qualityikatsilk,ordinary-qualityPidan,andhigh-quality Pidan
Ordinary-qualityikatsilkfor
Yonekura(2014)hascompiledtheexistingrecordsontheproductionofPidaninCambodia. High-qualityPidanisanendangeredculturalheritagefacingacrisisofnear-disappearanceafter overthirty yearsofcivilstrifein Cambodia.Many antiquehigh-quality Pidanshavebeen destroyedortakenoverseas,withfewremaininginCambodia.Onecanhardlyfindnewly-woven high-qualityPidaninthemarketsandsilkshopsinPhnom Penh.Inthispaper,・high-quality Pidan・meansPidanwithexquisitelyintricatedetailedclearmotifs,thepricesofwhichcanbe 10～100timesmorethanordinary-qualityikatsilk.Onlyafew skilledweaversofikatsilkcan weavehigh-qualityPidantoday.Furthermore,thehigh-qualityPidanweaversaregettingold. Therearenotsomanyweaverswhocanmasterthetechniquesofcreatingthecomplicatedmotifs ofthehigh-qualityPidan.Itrequiresahugeinvestmentoftimeandefforttomastersuchskills. ThemotifsofPidanarenotdrawnonpaper.TheyareonlytaughtbyproducingPidan.Thus, when theoldskilledweaversofPidan passaway,themotifsandweaving techniqueswill disappearwiththem.Inaddition,asSiyonn(2008)andWolfarth(2017)describe,thecultureof using Pidan to decoratearchitectureforBuddhistritualshasbeen fading in Cambodia. Pidanisnow wovenmoreforaestheticreasonsdisconnectedfrom religiouspractices.
Yet,theCambodiangovernmentpoliciestosupportPidanproductionhavebeenrather weak.In2003,theauthorhadinquiredwiththeMinistryofCultureofCambodia,theNational Museum ofCambodiainPhnom Penh,andtheUNESCOofficeinCambodiaastowhetherthey hadcollectionsofPidanorpoliciestoprotectandpreservePidan.OnlytheNationalMuseum of CambodiainPhnom PenhhadonepieceofantiquePidan.Itscollectionsoftextileswerelost during thecivilwar.TheUNESCO officewasin possession ofonly recently woven silk clothsandnoantiquePidan.TheUNESCO officeusedtoconductsilkweavingtrainingin Cambodia,butitwasnotnecessarilypromotingPidan.RecognisingtheplightofPidan,in 2003,theauthorformedaPidanProjectTeam (PPT),agroupof7volunteers,aimingtoset upapermanentexhibitionofPidaninCambodiatopromotePidan.PPT hasraisedfunds in Japan and used theirown pocketmoney tohold Pidan Exhibitionsin Cambodiamore than10timessince2003.In2011,PPTdonated23piecesofhigh-qualityPidantotheNational Museum ofCambodia in Phnom Penh.Since2011,PPT hasawaited theintroduction of appropriatetextilepreservationfacilitiesatthemuseum,aswellasCambodiangovernment supporttothemuseum intheform ofPidandonations.4
Also,weavingPidanisquitetime-andlabor-consuming.InCambodia,ordinaryweavers whoweaveordinary-qualityPidanorordinaryikatsilkcanonlygetsmallnet-profitsafter deductingthecostsofsilkthreads,dye,tools,andlooms.Unlessweaverscanproducehi gh-quality,high-pricedikatsilkorPidan,net-profitsaresmall.Atthesametime,duetoitshi gh-price,itisnoteasytofindcustomerswhocanbuyexpensivePidan.Ratherthanbecoming Pidanweavers,youthshavealternativeoccupationalchoices.Theybecomemigrantworkersat constructionsitesorfactoryworkers.Theirincomeisbetterthanthatearnedbyweaving ordinaryikatsilk.
Forexample,accordingtotheNGOCaringforYoungKhmer(CYK),recentlymoreyoung weavershavestoppedweaving.Theybecomemigrantworkerstogetregularincomesfrom thefactoriesoperating nearby their villages.CYK hasbeen training weaversin Takew provinceinCambodiafor20years.Forexample,theminimum wageoffactoryworkersin Cambodiawas140USD5permonth in 20166.Someworkerscan earn about200USD per month working longerhours7.On theotherhand,ifCYK orders a production ofhi gh-quality ikatsilk forspecialuseasobi,widebeltsfortheJapanesetraditionalcostume kimono,manyweaverswanttoproduceit.Thisisbecausedespitethefeeforproducingobi beinglowerthanthefactorywagebyworkingover-timeandlonghours,CYK payshigher laborfeescompared tothenet-profitsofproducing ordinary ikatsilk forclothing.Also, weaverscan weaveathomelooking aftertheirchildren and theirworking hourscan be flexibleandrelaxedcomparedtothefactorywork.Thus,ifweaverscanearnbetterincomes than weaving ordinary ikatsilk,moreweaversmay continuetoweaveandsomeofthem maybeabletomasterthetechniquesofcreatingthecomplicatedmotifsofPidan.
AftertheauthorhaddoneathoroughreadingofexistingEnglishandJapanesepublications on Pidan in Cambodia in 20148,thepreliminary hypothesisabouttheprospectofPidan weavingwasofasignificantendangermentofthisartform.Theauthorassumesthatnot onlyinCambodia,butalsoinNorth-EastThailandandSouthernVietnam,people・smotivation forweavingPidanmightbedeclining.
ThispaperfocusesonthefindingsonPidanfrom thefieldsurveyinNorth-EastThailand in2015andinSouthernVietnam in2016.Theauthorwaspromptedtoconductsurveysin thesetwoareasin lightofstudiesby Iwanaga(2003)andMorimoto(2008)describing the production by Khmerpeopleofasilk weftikatin a2/1twill,auniquecharacteristicof Cambodian ikatsilk notfoundin IndiaandIndonesiawhereikathasdeveloped.Iwanaga (2003)couldidentifyonepieceofPidaninthesurveyinSouthernVietnam in2003.
2.Theresearchmethodology,schedule,andtheresearchmembers Thekeypointsoftheresearchmethodologyareasfollows:
A)DomappingofthecurrentsituationofproductionofPidaninCambodia,North-East Thailand,andSouthernVietnam;
B)Collectand record themotifsofrecentand antiquePidan remaining in thesethree areas;Findoutthemeaningofthemotifsthroughinterviewsofweaversand・Pidan・ collectors;and
C)FindoutthecurrentsituationoftheproductionofPidan;forexample,area,number ofweavers,theamountofproductioninthesethreeareas.
Table1showsthelistofareasofCambodiawheresilkthreadproductionandsilktextile weavinghaveexistedsincethe1990s9.Duetotimelimitations,thissurveyhasnotyetinvestigated thecurrentsituationofproductioninthoseareasinCambodiaexceptworkshop-IinSiam Reap
Table1.TheareaswherepeopleproducesilkthreadandweaveikatsilkinCambodia
Province District Commune Village Kampot AngkorChey Dam Don Dam Don
AngkorChey AngkorCheyLeu,AngkorCheyKraom Dam BoukKpoh Takor
Chhuuk Meanchey VialTouvaal Takew PreyKavas PreyPdaw Saivar
PreyKabas TropeangKrouch TanYaap
Char AmpilKhanLech
Kdan Vial,Poam (Angkep Baok in oldmap)10, Kdan
Bati Tnaot Pey,Tanop
Samraon Srar SrarKhanLech
Kirivon
KompongSpeu Phnom Sroch PreyRamdoul Kaptouk
Ou KlanTatan
Kandal KsachKandal PreekLeon PreekTaon
PreekTakou PreekBonkon,PreekTakou PreekAmpil PreekAmpil
PonnyaLeu PonnyaLeu TuolOmpal KiengSvay
MukKampol KandalStun Saan
Phnom Penh RusseyKaew KohDach Lvea,Chungkoh,Kbalkoh,KohDach,Roneah PreyVeng Sitow Kandal PreekChankran PreekTapok
KompongCham KanMeas Sdaw Sdaw
RokarKoy RokarKoy
KompongSiam KorKoor CamkarSensep,KorKoor
Krouchmar Trea Trea1,Trea2,Trea3,Trea4,Trea5,Cham villagealongMekongriverneartheborder ofKrachieprovince
Samraon*11 KohSotin Lvie PreekTakou12 BonteayMeanchey Phnom Srok PaoyChar PaoyChar
Siam Reap Siam Reap ChotSam*
SreySnom
ToukChor* Uddow Meanchey ChungKal
Note:Theauthormadethistablebased on Tanaka (2013),Morimoto (1998,2008),Asahi(2011,2012), Kojin(2004),Iwanaga(2003,2005),Kong(2013)13,whichareJapanesepublications,andThePhnom Penh Post(2010a,2010b,2010c).In thosereferences,ifthereareconfusionsin thenamesofvillagesand communes,theauthor hasrevised thespellingsbased on NIS (2008),NCDD (2014)14,andAmakawa (2004).ThenamesofsomeareasweretranslatedintoEnglish from Japanesepublicationsandsosome Englishspellingsofthenamesmaybedifferentfrom thepronunciationsinKhmer.
andtheweaversinTakewweavingforNGO-C.Thisisleftforfurtherinvestigationinthefuture. InadditiontothoseareasinCambodiawherepeopleproducesilkthreadandweaveikat silk,similarikatsilkiswoveninnearbycountriesasfollows15.
◆ Thailand:BuriLam province,Surinprovince,SirisaketprovinceinNorthEastThailand
wheretheKhmerorLao-Khmerlive.
◆ Vietnam:Tropeang Chrau village,Van Giao commune(nearChau Doc),An Giang
provinceinSouthernVietnam
◆ Indonesia:Sumatra ◆ Myanmar
◆ China:Hainanisland
◆ ThePhilippines:Mindanaoisland ◆ Malaysia
ConsideringthatthemotifsandtheculturalandreligiousmeaningsofPidanareuniqueto Cambodia,theauthorputapriorityonconductingasurveyintheareasnexttoCambodia. TheseareasareNorth-EastThailandandSouthernVietnam whereethnicKhmerlive.
Thekeyfieldworkschedulewasthefollowing.On21March2015,theauthormetMr. SIYONN Sophearith,Lecturer,RoyalUniversityofFineArts,Cambodia,todiscussaboutthe objectivesoftheresearchandplanning.Onthesameday,theauthoralsohadameetingwith Mr.KONG Vireak,Director,NationalMuseum ofCambodia(NMC),toobtaininformationon PidankeptattheMuseum.Theauthorconsultedhim aboutthepossibilityofutilizingthese researchfindingstorequestthatCambodianikatsilkweavingand/orPidanbeacknowledgedby UNESCOasanIntangibleCulturalHeritageinthefuture.TheauthoralsometMs.SAM Thida, DeputyDirector,NMC.ShehelpedtheauthortoholdPidanexhibitionsatNMCin2010and 2014bycoordinatingwiththetextileteam ofNMC.
In April2015,theHEIWA (peace)-NAKAJIMA Foundation pledgedtoprovideresearch funding for this survey.Mr.SIYONN Sophearith drafted a field survey schedule.He conducted afield survey insideCambodia,including Takew province,which isfamousfor silk weaving.In August2015,theauthorvisitedCambodiatofinalisetheplanning ofthe survey in North-EastThailandwith Mr.SIYONN andMs.SEKIGUCHIfrom CYK.From 9 to 14 September 2015,theresearch team conducted a field study in Surin and Ubon RachataniinNorth-EastThailand.Mr.SIYONN continuedhisfieldsurveyinsideCambodia visiting Takew,Siem Reap,andotherprovinces.On 1719August2016,theresearchteam membersvisitedAnGiangprovinceinSouthernVietnam.
Theresearchteam consistedofsevenpeople.Table2showsthenamesandrolesofthe members.Theresearchteam deployedtoNorth-EastThailandconsistedofmembersnos.1,2,3, andtheauthor(7).Theresearchteam deployedtoSouthernVietnam consistedofmembers nos.4,5,6,andtheauthor(7).
3.TheresearchfindingsinSurinandUbonRachataniinNorth-EastThailand from 9to14September2015
Beforethisfieldsurvey,theauthorhadassumedthatinNorth-EastThailand,peopledidnot activelyweavePidan.However,thisassumptionwasoverturnedduringthisfieldsurvey.The villagersstillactively raisesilk-wormsand produceikatsilk cloth forsampothol(skirt madeofsilk)andPidan.Someworkshops,notably,produceveryhigh-qualitysilkclothwith traditionalandcreativemotifs.Whyarepeoplestillactivelyproducingikatsilkthere? 31.Surin
The research team visited the silk weaving workshops and a village where people producesilkthreadsbyraisingsilk-worms.
311.TheWorkshopofMr.S
Mr.S,aThaiwhoismarriedtoaCambodianwoman,weavesmotifsofPidanastheyare woveninCambodia,includingnaga,tree-of-life,birds,animals,andflowers(SeeFigure2). Heonlyusesnaturaldyes,includingindigo,forhissilk.Consideringthesocialchangesthat havemadehiscraftararity,hereasonablyclaimsthatinThailandnobodyelsebuthecan dyemorethanonecolorwithnaturaldye.
Table2.Thenameandroleofeachmemberoftheresearchteam Name,title,organisation Roleintheteam 1 Mr.SIYONN Sophearith,ABD,
Lecturer,DepartmentofArchaeology, RoyalUniversityofFineArts,Cambodia
MainResearcher.ConductresearchinCambodia andNorth-EastThailand.
2 Ms.SEKIGUCHIHarumi,Advisor, CaringforYoungKhmer RepresentativeinCambodia,
PidanProjectTeam
Coordinateresearch in Cambodiaand North-East Thailand.AccountinginCambodia.
Resourceperson 3 Ms.KampoyTONGNAM (Peap),
Researchassistant,
formerCYK weavingtraininginstructor
Communication,logistics,interpretation,etc.for researchinSurin,Thailand.
Resourceperson 4 Ms.INOU Mayu,Representative,
Seed-to-Table,Vietnam CommuniresearchicatinAnGion,logiang,Vistics,ietnam.nterpretation,etc.for 5 Ms.KIM Kha,FormerHeadofWomen・s
UnioninSShamlet,Vietnam ResearchAssiweaversinSShamlstant.Formedacooperatiet,Vietnam. veof Resourceperson
6 Dr.MIYAMOTO Kazuko,
Professor,YamanashiUniversity Member,PidanProjectTeam
Analysecollectedinformationandassessthe directionofresearch
7 Dr.YONEKURA Yukiko,Associate Professor,ShowaWomen・sUniversity RepresentativeinJapan,
PidanProjectTeam
ResearchTeam Leader.Compileandanalyse collectedinformationandwritereports. Coordinatebetweenresearchteam members, researchassistants,andinterpreters.
Hisfour-meterlongsilkclothwithsacredmotifswouldsellforadecentpriceof120,000 THB16(about3,600USD).Thistypeofsilkclothisproducedonorderoronacommissionbasis.
Accordingtohim,youngpeoplethesedaysmoveoutofhisweavingvillagefor・better・work inothercitiesorplaceswithareasonassimpleasthatweavingisboring.However,withthe government・ssupport,especiallythatoftheQueenMotherCenter,hehasputforthgreatefforts totrainyoungpeoplepassionateaboutweavingbytravellingtovariousplacesinThailand. 312.Makingsilkthreadsfrom goldencocoonsinP village
WhentheauthoraskedMr.Sfrom whereheobtainssilkthreads,heintroducedustoP village.InPvillage,about300householdsraisesilk-worms,morethan120householdsmake silk threads,andabout1516householdsweavesilk cloth.Silk threadproduction involves theentirevillage(SeeFigure3).Formaintainingtheirenthusiasm andcommitmenttosilk productionandweaving,thevillagersformedasilkresourcecenterinthevillageformutual assistanceandtoraiseawarenessofsilkproductionandweaving.
Figure2.PidanwovenattheworkshopofMr.S
High-qualityPidanwovenattheworkshopofMr.S High-qualityPidanwithreligiousmotifs, Buddha・simage,wovenattheworkshopofMr.S
Figure3.SilkthreadproductioninP village
313.TheWorkshopofMr.V
TheworkshopofMr.VdoesnotweavePidan,butthisworkshopgivesgoodtipsonhowto makeagoodnetprofit.Thisworkshopproducesaverysophisticatedandcomplicatedhi gh-qualitysilktextile,whichlookslikeembroidery.Atthisworkshop,aweaverearns230THB (about6.9USD)perday,andaweaver・sassistantearns200THB (about6USD)perday. Sincemostoftheweaversweremiddle-agedorolderpeoplewhohavedifficultiesinbecoming migrantworkers,thisincomefrom weaving isimportanteven though theirearningsare minimal.Tooperateoneloom requiresfourweavers.Theycanonlyweavefivecentimeters aday,and itrequiresonemonth toproducelessthan twometers.Thisprocessisti me-consuming(SeeFigure4).However,theintensiveworkisworthitsincetheworkshopcan sellabout3.2metersofthishigh-qualitysilktextilefor250,000THB(about7,500USD).The author calculatesthatthelabor costofoneloom to produce3.2 metersisabout1,536 USD～1,792USD17.Thismeanstheworkshopcan makeareasonablenetprofiteven after deductingthecostsofothermaterialsforproducingthishigh-qualitysilktextile.
314.TheWorkshopofMr.B,D village
Mr.B producessilkclothwhensomeoneordersorcommissionsit.Thepriceofatwo meterlongnagamotifsilkclothusingnaturaldyeis20,000THB (about600USD).Ittakes 2.5monthstoproduceitstarting from tying and dyeing thethreadstoweaving it.The weavingalonetakestwoweeks.Remarkably,hehasalsoinventedaweavingmachinewhich canweave2metersofsilkinonly3days.
Mr.B・sworkshophasproducedmanyworkswithsophisticatedmotifs.Oneofthem isthe silkclothwiththemotifofintertwinednagas.Hisworkshopsellssilkclothswithvariousmotifs atcompetitiveprices.Thepriceofafour-meterlongsilkclothwithadiamondmotifis15,000 THB (about450USD),onewiththenagamotifofPidanis50,000THB (about1,500USD) (SeeFigure5).Thepricesarehigheratthesouvenirshopfortourists.Thepriceofafour meterlongPidanwiththenagamotifisabout120,000THB(about3,600USD)～160,000THB (about4,800USD).
Figure4.TheWorkshopofMr.V
AttheworkshopofMr.V.Fourweavers
Mr.B usedtoliketextileswhenhewasyoung,butsociallyitwasnotcommonformen toweaveinhishomevillage.Whenhewasabout16or17yearsold,hedecidedtoemigrate for construction work and other careers including joining a traditionalmusicaltroupe. However,hisdesiresanddreamsfortextileproduction madehim return tohisvillageto takeonaweavingcareerfouryearslater.Hestartedtodesignandconstructhisworkshop byhimselfusingdiscardedwoodlogsleftoverfrom illegalloggingintheneighborhood.His businessbegan with 6 weaversand 6 looms.Even withoutgovernmentsupport,hehas managedtoexpandhisbusiness.Todayhehasforty-twopeopleworkinginhisworkshop. 315.TheWorkshopofMr.Y,Svillage
Thisworkshopproducessilkclothwiththemotifsofnaga,tree-of-life,ships,etc.(SeeFigure 6).TheyarethemotifsofPidan.Yet,theweaversdonotcallthem holpidanbutrather・sotpros (men・ssilk).・Sotprosarenotworn in daily life,butthey areusedon differentreligious occasions,forinstancewrappingasacredritualobjectknownasbaisarai,forwrappingthe deceasedforafuneral,forthedressingofcandidatesinmonkordinationceremonies,andfor
High-qualityPidanwithnagamotifsdesignedby
Mr.B andwovenathisworkshop Mr.B・sworkshopbuiltwithdiscardedwoodenlogs
Figure5.PidansoldattheWorkshopofMr.B andnearbysouvenirshops
Ordinary-qualityPidanandikatsilksoldatsouvenir
dressingforweddings.Theycanalsobehungonwallsandceilings.Asatraditioninthearea, peopleneitherwearsilkclothswithmotifsofBuddhaandpagodasnordonatethem topagodas. Silkclothswithsuchmotifsarewovenonorderofcustomersfrom Sisaket,Ubontani,etc.
Inthisvillagethenumberofweaversisremarkablylow;about10peopleweaveoutofabout 200households.Moreover,comparedtootherworkshopswhichtheauthorhasvisited,the qualityofsilkweavinginthisworkshopisnotexcellentbutordinary.Thepriceofatwo meterlongnagamotifsilkclothis2,000THB (about60USD).Despitethis,asenseofpride inweavingasavocationhasparticularlytakenholdamongtheworkshop・syoungmembers. From thiscanbeinferredincreasedchancesfortheweavingtradition・scontinuedsurvival. 316.T village
Theresearchersmetsomesilkweaversinthisvillageofmorethan390households.The weaversthemselvesdidnotknow how manypeopleweavesilkintheirvillage.WemetMs.SS, age60,and Ms.PT,age40.Ms.SS weavesaverticalstripemotifsilk cloth common in Surin,andpeacockmotifs,etc.TheytellusthatpeopledonotweavePidan,whichshehas neverheardof.Sheweaveselephantmotifsilk cloth recently,butnotforwearing.People hangitonwallsduringauspiciousceremoniessuchasweddings,housewarmingceremonies, etc.Peoplealsousesilkclothtowrapthedeceasedforfunerals.Monksaresometimesthe recipientsofdonatedsilkcloth.
Ms.SStoldtheresearchteam thatshehadneverheardofPidanandshestatedthat she did not weave it.However,the elephant motifs of ikat silk for hanging at the ceremoniesand notforwearing werethesamemotifsofPidan in Cambodia.Thewhite elephantsarethemotifsrelevanttoBuddhism (SeeFigure7).
Inthisvillage,silkthreadsarenotproducedbutboughtfrom Pecchabunprovince.Theprice ofsilkthreadsis800THB(24USD)perkilogram.Toproduceasilkcloth,ittakesabouttwo weekstotie,dye,andweavethesilk(about8daystoweave).Ms.PTweavespictorialsilkfor
Figure6.PidansoldattheWorkshopofMr.Y
Ordinary-qualityPidanwovenattheWorkshop
customers.Thepriceofan8meter(about2kuben)longsilkclothisabout10,000THB (300 USD),from whichsheearnsanet-incomeofabouthalfofthesellingprice,about150USD. Sincemostoftheweaversweremiddle-agedorolderpeoplewhohavedifficultiesinbecoming migrantworkers,thisincomefrom weavingisimportanteventhoughtheamountisminimal.
Theauthorconsidersthisnet-incometobebetterthanthatinCambodia.InCambodia,the priceofimportedsilkthreadshaveincreasedfrom anaverageof25USDperkgin2008to55USD perkg in 2013whilethepriceofsilk cloth hasdecreased from 70USD per1kuben (3.8 meters)in2007to40～50USD per1kubenin 201018.Thenetincomefrom producing1kuben decreasedto14～19USD.Therefore,ifaweavercan produceandsella2kuben long silk cloth,thenet-incomecanbe28～38USD afterdeductingthecostsofsilkthreadsanddye. 32.UbonRachaternee
321.TheWorkshopofMr.M
TheworkshopofMr.M19seemstofinanciallysustainitselfandbeindependent,asituation apparently facilitated by thevariousawardshehasreceived forthehigh quality ofhis worksofsilk.Hereceivesno financialsupportfrom eithertheThaigovernmentorthe Queen SirikitFoundation.Commercially heseemstobevery successful.Forexample,one bankhasaskedhim toproduceoriginal,specialsilkgiftsforthebank・sspecialcustomers (SeeFigure8).
TheancestorsofMr.M workedashigh-ranking governmentofficialsforgenerations. Mr.M isfrom aprestigiousfamilywhichisverywell-knowninthearea.Hismotherused toproducetextiles.Itwashismotherwhoinspiredhim totakeonaweavingcareerafter workingformanyyearsasaflightattendant.Hisworkshopproducesveryhighqualityand expensivesilk cloth including Pidan.Mr.M designsoriginalmotifsand inventsoriginal techniques.About90％ ofhisweaversconsistoflocalpeopleandabout5％ consistofpeople from outsidethecommunitywhomovedinduetomarriage.
Figure7.OrdinaryikatsilkwithpeacockmotifsandPidanwoveninT village
Mr.M hasinheritedfrom hismotherandcollectedquitearemarkablenumberoftraditional weavingtoolsandequipment.Duringtheresearchers・visit,hewasconstructingamuseum nexttohisworkshopforthepreservationandexhibitionoftraditionaltoolsandequipment. Heaimedtoopenthemuseum in2016.Healsoconsentedtoshow ushispersonalcollection ofhundredsofpiecesofextremelyhigh-qualityPidan.
33.TheresearchfindingsinNorth-EastThailand
Asawhole,Mr.SIYONN Sophearith,themainresearcheridentifiesfivekeypointsabout silkweavinginSurinandUbonRachatanibasedonhisinterviews.First,peopleweavefortheir living.InSurin,peopleproducethepictorialikatsilkclothwithsacredmotifsknownbythe KhmerslivinginCambodiaasPidanonlywhencustomersorderorcommissionit.Thepictorial ikatsilkclothisnotcalledholPidanasinCambodia.Instead,itiscalledbyitsmotifs,for example,holrupneak,asilkclothwithnaga(multiple-headedserpent),orsometimescalledsot pros(men・ssilk).Second,weaverswhoproducesilkclothhavediversereasonsandinterests. Forexample,Mr.B20expressesastrongcommitmenttoweavingasthepreservationofalocal
TheentrancetotheWorkshopofMr.M Mr.M・soriginallydesignedsilk
Figure8.TheWorkshopofMr.M
tradition,andasawaytomakealiving.Mr.Y,ayoungman,seemstousehisvillage・s traditionalweavingtechniquestofollow today・spopulartrendinThailand.Third,weaving communities gain supportand favor from the public,and also from the Royalfamily, particularlytheQueenSirikitFoundation.Fourth,thedemandfortraditionalsilkishigher inThailandthanthedemandinCambodia.TheThaigovernmenthasapolicyofpromoting theuseofsilk.Lastly,asMr.Sstated,difficultyinobtainingnaturalmaterialsfornatural dyecanbeaseriouschallengeforproducingnaturallydyedsilkclothinthefuture.
Afterthisfieldsurvey,theauthorcametotheconclusionthatthemainreasonforthe survivalandpopularityofsilkclothproductioninNorth-EastThailandisbecausethesilk producers and weavers are able to earn a reasonable netincome while taking pride in preservingtheirlongweavingtradition.RegardingwhatkindsofmotifsofPidanarewoven there,mostmotifsaretraditionalmotifsthatarealready known exceptthenaga motifs newlydesignedbyMr.B.
4.ThefieldsurveyinAnGianginSouthernVietnam from 17to19August2016 ThreeJapaneseresearchteam membersvisitedAnGiangprovinceinSouthernVietnam from 17to19August2016.Ontheafternoonof17August,theresearchersexploredChauDoc MarketandthecityofChauDoclookingforhand-wovencloths.Theteam onlyfoundoneshop inthemarketsellingsomesmallbags.Thosebagsweremadebyethnicminorities,accordingto theseller.Also,asouvenirshop in theVictoriaChau Dochotelsold someclothsbutno Pidan(SeeFigure9).
ChauDocMarket VictoriaChauDocHotel
Figure9.ChauDocMarketandKhmer-stylepagodas
41.SShamlet
On 18August,researchersvisitedSS hamletwith theguidanceofMs.Kim,aformer representativeofthewomen・sunioninSShamlet.Ms.Kim supportedandcoordinatedvillage femaleweaverstoform acooperativetoreviveweavinginSShamletin1999.SinceVietnam is aone-partystateunderasocialistregime,stronggovernmentsupportwasnecessaryforMs. Kim,awomen・sunionrepresentative,toform acooperative.In1987,thevillagershadtofleethe hamlettoSocTrangandTraVinhfor23yearsbecauseofthearmedfightingattheborderof Cambodia.AfterthevillagerscouldreturntoSShamlet,womenwantedtostartweavingagain. TheydiscussedandconsultedwithMs.Kim abouttheirdesire.Theyformedacooperativeand startedtoweaveagainin1999.Ms.N ledthegroupof12womenwhowantedtoweave.
They woveand sold fortheirfamiliesinsidethehamlet.Atitspeak,thenumberof weaversreached about300people,buttoday lessthan 100peopleweave21.Young people prefertomigratetowork,forexample,in theindustrialareain Dong Naiprovince,far beyondHoChiMinhcity.MerchantsoftheCham ethnicgroup22comefrom Cambodiato buysilkforlaterresale.TheirmarketisnotVietnam butCambodia.
Ms.N broughtouttheirhand-woven silk,including Pidan,and showed them to the researchteam.Whentheauthoraskedabouthow theyusesuchsilkcloth,sherepliedthat theyuseitforweddings(SeeFigure10).Whenadaughtergetsmarried,hermotherweaves andgivestwopiecesofsilk cloth tothedaughter.Peopleusesilk asadepositwhen they borrow money.PeoplesometimesalsodonatesilktoPagodas.
A Pidanbeingwoven TiedanddyedsilkthreadsforPidan
Thisordinary-qualityPidan(90cm x290cm)was1.5 millionVND23(67.6USD byanexchangerateof1 USD＝22,200VND)
Thisordinary-qualityPidan(90cm x290cm)was1.5 millionVND (67.6USD byanexchangerateof1 USD＝22,200VND)
Shebuyssilkthreadsfrom Lam Dong,nearDaLat.Inthepast,theyusedtoraisesil k-wormsand practicenaturaldyeing.However,recently naturaldyeisvery expensiveand thus difficultto buy.Ittakes two or three months to produce one piece ofikatsilk includingdyeingthethreads.Withinthattime,weavingtakesahalf-month(SeeFigure11).
Ms.N hasstoppedweavingduetofailingeyesightasshehasgrownolder.Shehasbeen succeededasaweaverbyhereldestdaughter,Ms.NS(age51).Ms.NS,however,hasalso beguntoexperienceworseningeyesight.
Anexampleofthecostsandbenefitsofweavingisthefollowing.Ifthepriceofsilkis 1millionVND,thematerials,includingsilkthreadsanddye,costabout40％ andthelabor costs60％.They considerthelaborcosttobeabout25,000VND (about1USD)perday. They stateasan examplethatthemonthly salary ofa factory workerisabout4to 5 million VND (181.18USD～225.23USD with an exchangerateof1USD＝22,200VND).To work atthefactories,theworkershaveto pay fortheirown living expensesforhouse-rents,foods,transportation,etc,butifbothawifeandhusbandworkatthefactoriesand thewholefamilymigrates,itisaffordable.
Forexample,theauthorboughttwopiecesofPidaninSShamlet.ThesizeofthePidan was90cm x 294cm.Thepricewas1.5million VND (67.6USD with an exchangerateof1 USD＝22,200VND).Thevillagerstoldusthatthelaborcostis60％ oftheprice.Itmeans thatthelaborcostwas40.6USD toproducethisPidan.Ittakestwotothreemonthsfrom dyeingthreadstoweaving.OneproducercanmakeseveralpiecesofPidaninparallelwhile tyinganddyeingneedstimetodrywhileonecancontinueweaving.Orifseveralproducers cooperateand dividetheirrolesoftying and dyeing threads,and weaving,they may be producingnotonlyonePidanbutseveralPidanconcurrently.Thisisanimportantsource ofincomeforweaverswhostayinthehamletsincemostofthem aremiddle-agedorolder people.Theyhavelessalternativeoccupationalchoices.Also,sincethelivingexpensesinthe
Figure10.Theweavers・cooperativeandPidanwoveninSShamlet
TiedanddyedsilkthreadsforPidanwithBuddhist
hamletarelessthantheoutside,thisincomefrom weavingisadvantageouseventhoughthe amountislessthanthewageoffactorywork.
TheauthorconsidersthisnetincometobebetterthanthatinCambodia.Asdescribed insection316,duetothepriceincreaseofimportedsilkthreadsinCambodiain2010,the netincomeofproducing 1kuben ofsilk cloth decreased to 14～19USD.Therefore,ifa weavercan produceandsella2kuben long silk cloth,thenetincomecan be28～38USD afterdeductingthecostsofsilkthreadsanddye.
TheresearchersleftSShamletandvisitedtheKhmer-styleVR Pagoda.ThePagodawas undergoingrenovations.Accordingtothevillagers,VR PagodausedtohavePidanhanging
Figure11.OrdinaryikatsilkwoveninSShamlet
Traditionalwoodenthreadshuttles Silkthreadsbroughtfrom outsidethevillage Ordinary-qualityikatsilk Ordinary-qualityikatsilkforclothing
ondisplaybeforethestartoftherenovations.Therenovationsaretakingalongtimedue toalackofavailablefunding.Fundingeffortsareongoing,withindividualdonationsoften rangingfrom 410,000VND to520,000VND (SeeFigure12).
After the researchers left the pagoda,we also visited the Khmer Textile Weaving Training Center,Van Giao commune,Tinh Bien district(SeeFigure13).Thegovernment constructeditwithfundsofabout25,000USD (about2.5millionyen).
Figure12.Khmer-stylepagodanearbySShamlet
A buildinginsidethecompoundofVR pagoda
GateofVR pagoda Wall paintings of VR pagoda created with the supportofdonationsfrom localpeople
Figure13.TheKhmerTextileWeavingTrainingCenterconstructedbythegovernmentnearSS hamlet
ThegovernmentconstructedtheKhmerTextile
WeavingTrainingCenter,VanGiaocommune TheVipromotietnamesegovernmenthasa polngthetextilesoftheKhmer,anethniicy ofc minority
42.TheresearchfindingsinSouthernVietnam
Inconclusion,regardingwhatkindsofmotifsofPidanwoveninSShamletinSouthern Vietnam,allmotifsaretraditionalmotifsthatarecommon in Cambodia.Afterthisfield survey,the author came to the conclusion that the main reason for the survivaland popularity ofsilk cloth production in SS hamletin Southern Vietnam isbecausethesilk producersand weaversareableto earn a reasonablenetincome,whiletaking pridein preservingtheirlongweavingtradition.
5.Conclusion
Before conducting these field surveys,the author had assumed that not only in Cambodiabutalsoin N orth-EastThailandandSouthern Vietnam peopleprobably didnot actively weavePidan today.However,thefindingsofthesefield surveysoverturned this assumption (SeeTable3).In fact,in N orth-EastThailand,thereareyoung weaverswho choosetoweaveikatsilkintheirhomevillagesafterreturningfrom migrantwork.Some youthschooseweavingasanoccupation.TheyweaveikatsilkandPidantosell.Theyseem tobesuccessful.AlsoinNorth-EastThailand,therearesomeweaverswhoareweavingvery high-quality expensive ikat silk on order from customers. Since those weavers have customerswhopayhighpricesandappreciatethehighqualityofikatsilk,itisworthwhile fortheweaverstoweavehigh-quality ikatsilk andalsoPidan with pictorialmotifs,even though the production process is quite time- and labor-consuming.Also,in Southern Vietnam,femaleweaversweaveikatsilk including Pidan sincemerchantsorderand buy theirproductstosellinCambodia.Inshort,individualweaverscanearnreasonablenetincomes afterdeductingthecostofmaterialsincludingsilkthreads,dye,toolsandlooms.Also,in both countries,many weaversweremiddle-aged orolderwomen who havedifficultiesin becomingmigrantworkers.Therefore,theincomefrom producingsilkclothisimportantfor thosewhohavefeweralternativeoccupationalchoices.
RegardingwhatkindsofmotifsofPidanarewoveninNorth-EastThailand,theauthor observed thatmostmotifsaretraditionalmotifsalready recorded exceptthenaga motifs newly designed by Mr.B.In SS hamletin Southern Vietnam,allmotifsaretraditional motifsthatarecommoninCambodia.
Comparing such situations ofactive weaving in N orth-EastThailand and Southern Vietnam with the situation in Cambodia where young weavers decide to work at the factories,theauthorcouldidentifysomesimilarpointsinactivesilkweavinginNorth-East ThailandandSouthernVietnam.First,somehavecustomerswhoarewillingtoorderikat silkandpayhighprices.InCambodia,weaversstruggletomakeendsmeetduetorather high costsofimported materials24and a lack ofsuch demand forhigh-quality expensive ikatsilk.Second,asMr.Sdescribes,theroyalfamilyandthegovernmentofThailandhas policiestopromotetheproductionoftraditionalikatsilk.Also,inVietnam,thegovernment
supported the women・s union leader to form a weavers・cooperative in SS hamletand constructed the Khmer Textile Weaving Training Center.Such supportive government policiesareratherweakinCambodia25.Third,goodqualitysilkthreadsandthematerials tomakedyes,eithernaturalorchemical,areproducedinThailandandVietnam.Thecosts ofmaterialsofsilkproductionseem tobelessthaninCambodia.Thismeansthatthenet profitsofindividualweaverscan berelatively higher in Thailand and Vietnam than in Cambodia26.Thesepointsseem to encourageand motivatemoreweaversto continueto produceikatsilkinThailandandVietnam thaninCambodia.
Basedonthesefindingsfrom thesurveysinNorth-EastThailandandSouthernVietnam, theauthor identifiesseveralfactorscontributing to thesurvivaloftraditionalikatsilk weaving,includingPidan.First,theweaversinbothcountriestendtoexpressaloveof,and
Table3.FindingsonproductionandsalesofsilkclothsandPidansinNorth-EastThailand andSouthernVietnam duringthefieldsurveyinSeptember2015andAugust2016*
Country Province Village/ hamlet/ workshop/ NGO Hi gh-quality Pidan Ordi - nary-quality Pidan/ ikat silk Hi gh-quality silk textile Hi gh-quality ikat silk Young succe-sors
Silkthread Pri ceoftwo-metersilktextile (USD)
Thai
-land Surin Mr.S*** ○ × × ○ youthsTrain MadeiThailandn 1,800 Mr.V
un-known × ○ knownun- un-known 4,700
Mr.B ○ × × ○ ○ 225～750 Mr.Y × ○ × × ○ 60 T village × ○ × × unseen 75 Ubon Mr.M ○ × ○ ○ Train youths unknown Vi
et-nam AnGiang SS × ○ × × Met1young weaver
Madein
Vietnam 46
Cam-bodia** Takew villages
× ○ × × Some
imported invillage 21～26 atmarkets/shops inTakew & Phnom Penh 40～200 Phnom Penh NGO-C*** ○ × ○ ○ Traiyouthsn imported/ Madein Cambodia plainsilkcloth 40～54 ikatsilk 126～156 Pidan 400～1,400 Siam
Reap workshop-I*** ○ × ○ ○ ○ MadeiCambodina ～3,000 *Theauthormadethistablebasedontheinterviews.・○・standsfor・producing・.
・×・standsfor・notproducing・.・Unknown・meansthattheauthordidnotask.
**SeeTable1forareaswheretheyusedtoproducesilkthreadsorclothbutthecurrentsituationis unknown.TheauthorvisitedandinterviewedNGO-C in20132017andworkshop-Iin2011.
pridein,thistraditionalikatsilk.Second,in addition to thisloveoftheircrafts,what motivatespeopleinNorth-EastThailandandSouthernVietnam toproducetraditionalikat silk weaving seems to be the reasonable net profits available for individualweavers. Otherwise,someyouthsinNorth-EastThailandwithalternativeoccupationalchoiceswould notchooseweaving.Also,formiddle-agedorolderpeoplewhohavenootherchoiceslike becomingmigrantworkers,incomefrom weavingishighlyadvantageous.Whatseemstobe crucialtoallow thesurvivaloftraditionalikatsilkweaving,includingPidancouldbe:the marketdemandforhigh-pricedikatsilk;andtheaccessandlow-costofikatsilkproduction materials.Thegovernmentpoliciesorpatronageofroyalfamiliespromotingtheproduction oftraditionalikatsilkseem tobehelpfulbutnotessential.
Therefore,forthesurvivaloftheendangeredweavingtechniqueandmotifsoftraditional Pidan,new andincreasingcustomers・demandsandnew marketsforPidanandtheaccess to low-costproduction materialsseem to becrucial.Theymotivatepeopleto continueto masterthetechniqueand carry itforward tosucceeding generations.Iftheexcellenceof high-qualityPidanisacknowledgedasanendangeredintangibleculturalheritageandbecomes betterknownaroundtheworld,itmaycreateanexpandedcustomerbaseandmarketdemand, therebyhelpingweaverstocontinuethispreciousculturalheritage.
［Notes］
1 TheauthorsincerelyappreciatestheresearchfundpartlyprovidedbyHEIWA (peace)-NAKAJIMA Foundation,Tokyo,JapantoconductthisfieldsurveyforApril2015March2016.Yet,theauthoris solelyresponsibleforanymisunderstandingsormistakesstatedinthisreport.
2 ItisknowninCambodiaasNeakPoan. 3 SeeUemura(2003)andIwanaga(2003). 4 SeeYonekura(2014).
5 ・USD・standsfor・USdollar・. 6 SeethePhnom PenhPost(2016).
7 A factoryworkerwhom theauthorinterviewedinTakew on28August2016alsosaidthatifshe worked long hours,she could geta monthly netincome ofabout190 USD after deducting transportationcosts.
8 SeeYonekura(2014). 9 SeeYonekura(2014).
10 AccordingtoIwanaga(2003),Poam villageisnexttotheeastsideofKdanvillage.Accordingto NCDD (2014),thereisnorecordofPoam villagein Kdan communebutthereisavillagecalled Peem inKompongReapcommune,PreyKavasdistrict.
11 According to NCDD (2014),Samraon village exists in the Krouchmar commune,Krouchmar district,butthereisnoSamraonvillageinothercommunesinKrouchmardistrict.
12 AccordingtoNCDD (2014),thereisPrekTakaevillagebutnoPreekTakouvillage.
13 According to Kong (2013),mostof1700 householdsidentified asdoing weaving lived in the5 villagesshowninTable1,intheKohDachweavingproductioncommunitylocatedabout10km north-eastofPhnom Penh.Kong(2013)didnotstatethenamesoftheprovincescontainingmajor silk-producing areas,buttheauthorcross-checked thelocationsbased on theotherpublications
andintegratedthem intoTable1.Theauthordidnotinclude・LoveaPrekChrey,LeukDek,Peam Chor,LoveaEm・inTable1sincethenamesoftheprovinceswheretheyexistedinwereunknown. Kongdescribedthattheyare・locatedinbetweentheMekongriverandtheTokriver・.
14 TheCambodiangovernmentsetupTheNationalCommitteeforSub-nationalDemocraticDevelopment (NCDD)in2008.
15 SeeYonekura(2014).
16 ・THB・standsfor・ThaiBaht・.
17 Thesimplecalculation oflaborcostis:(320cm/5cm)daysx 6～7USD/day x 4weavers＝1,536 USD～1,792USD.
18 SeeYonekura(2014).
19 Tovisitthisworkshop,itisessentialtohavesomeconnectionwiththosewhoknowMr.M personally. TheresearchersappreciatesincerelythatonetextileexperthaskindlyintroducedustoMr.M. 20 Hewas39yearsold.
21 Thereare544householdsinSShamlettoday.
22 EthnicCham peopleinCambodiaalsoweave・Pidan・.TheirreligionisIslam. 23 ・VND・standsfor・VietnameseDong・.
24 SeeYonekura(2014). 25 SeeYonekura(2014).
26 Asdescribedin section 3-1-6,duetothepriceincreaseofimportedsilk threadsin Cambodiain 2010,thenetincomeofproducing1kubenofsilkclothdecreasedto14～19USD afterdeducting thecostsofsilkthreadsanddye.
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