Abstract
Thisarticle examinespreviousstudiesofthe Japanese welfare regime dur- ing and afterthe 1990s. While many scholarsseem to have focused on a specificseriesofoccurrencesin explaining the pre-1990 welfare regime, the characterization ofthe welfare regime since 1990 hasrelied upon adif- ferentsetofresearch subjects. Thisarticle exploresresearch conducted by two scholarson the post-1990 welfare regime,and offersinsightson improving analysisofthe contemporary welfare regime in Japan.
I. Introduction
Although scholarshave used differentmodelsand methodologiesin explain- ing the welfare regime (orthe welfare state)in Japan during and before the 1980s,many ofthem have focused on asimilarsetofoccurrences(e.g., Kasza2006;Nagayama2004;Shinkawa1993).
The high economicgrowth ofthe 1960scaused new socialproblemsin Japan,such asoverpopulation in urban areasand depopulation in ruralareas. Welfare supportforchildren in overpopulated areasand forthe elderly in depopulated areasbecame aseriouschallenge. Prefecturaland municipal governmentsthatwere run by reformistgovernorsormayorsproved willing to dealwith these issues. The ruling party atthe time,the conservative LiberalDemocraticParty (LDP),wasafraid ofthe increasing powerofthe reformistparties,and decided to commence variouswelfare programsin orderto recoverpopularsupport. Thus,thisperiod witnessed the strength- ening ofthe welfare regime in Japan.
The 1973 oilcrisistriggered low economicgrowth and,consequently, reduced tax revenues. The governmentthusdecided to reduce the budg- etsforwelfare programs. A symbolofthisretrenchmentwasthe Second
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＜ Note ＞
Two Vi ews of t he Wel f a r e Regi me i n J a pa n dur i ng a nd a f t er t he 1990s
MasayukiHiromoto
修道法学 ３５巻 ２号
Ad HocCommission on Administrative Reform (Dainijirinjigyōseichōsakai) formed in 1981,which submitted recommendationsto the governmenton curtailing welfare program budgets. The governmentimplemented admin- istrative reformsin accordance with the recommendations,leading to the decline ofthe welfare regime.
While many scholarsseem to have concentrated on these eventsin accounting forthe Japanese welfare regime during and before the 1980s, studiesofthe welfare regime subsequentto thisperiod have had different areasoffocus. Asaresult,existing research hasgiven usdissimilar imagesofthe contemporary welfare regime. Thisarticle examinesthe pre- viousstudiesofthe welfare regime during and afterthe 1990sin orderto clarify the divergentsubjectsofresearch and resultsofanalyses.
The focalpointofthisstudy isthe welfare regime,which includesthe wel- fare state aswellasvarioussocialfactorsthatare linked to welfare. This article exploresthe work oftwo scholarswho,in theirresearch on the post- 1990 welfare regime,observed the centralgovernment,localgovernments, residents,and organizationstackling welfare problemswithin communities. One scholar,Toshimitsu Shinkawa,mainly focused on the centralgovern- ment’swelfare programs. The otherscholar,NatsumiAratame,chiefly researched changesin community welfare. The consideration ofthese pre- viousstudiesofferscluesforthe comprehensive understanding ofthe con- temporary welfare regime.
There are severalotherstudiesofthe Japanese welfare regime during and afterthe 1990sthatdo notdealprimarily with the centralgovernment’swel- fare programsorcommunity welfare efforts. Forexample,Estévez-Abe (2008)hasexplained thatchangesin the election system led to atransition ofthe welfare regime in the 1990s. The influence ofpoliticalsystemson the welfare regime isintriguing. Thisarticle,however,focuseson central governmentwelfare programsand community welfare during and afterthe 1990s,in an attemptto understand the transition ofthe welfare regime from the previousperiod. The rolesofthe centralgovernment,localgovern- ments,and communitiescharacterized the study ofthe welfare regime dur- ing and before the 1980s. Thisarticle accordingly examinesthe studies thatobserved the centralgovernment’swelfare programsand the progress
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ofcommunity welfare during and afterthe 1990s.
II. Liberalization ofthe Welfare Regime
Shinkawa(2007;2009a;2009b;2011a;2011b)attempted to explain the wel- fare regime during and afterthe 1990son the basisoftransition from the pre- viousperiod. He noted thatthe welfare modelofJapan hastraditionally fit into the so-called “family-ism”(kazoku shugi)type. Thiskind ofwelfare regime haslow levelsofboth de-commodification (datsu shōhinka)and de- familization (datsu kazokuka). De-commodification refersto the growth in size and extentofsystemsthatmeetsocialrights;acountry thathasvarious and substantialwelfare programsenjoysahigh levelofde-commodification.
De-familization signifiesthe spread ofthe employmentofwomen and a decline in the notion thatwomen should do housework.
Shinkawahighlighted the liberalization ofthe welfare regime during and afterthe 1990s. A liberalistwelfare regime hasalow degree ofde-commo- dification and ahigh degree ofde-familization (the welfare regime ofthe USA isan example). Shinkawaexplained thatthe Japanese welfare regime during and afterthe 1990sapproachesthiscategory,asasituation oflow de- commodification continuesto existwhile the degree ofde-familization is increasing.
One reason forcontinuing low de-commodification isthe retrenchmentof the nationalprogramsforpensionsand health insurance. The centralgov- ernmentattempted to limitspending on these programsby raising premi- umsand expensesforthe insured,and changing the minimum age atwhich aperson can receive apension.
Atthe same time,Shinkawaacknowledged the enrichmentofwelfare pro- gramsforthe elderly during and afterthe 1990s. The centralgovernment announced the Ten-YearStrategy to Promote Health Care and Welfare for the Aged (Kōreisha hoken fukushisuishin 10-kanen senryaku)in 1989. This so-called “Gold Plan (Gōrudopuran)”aimed to arrange sufficientmanpower and facilitiesforwelfare programsforthe elderly from 1990 to 1999.(Itwas remade in 1994 in orderto raise the targetfiguresofcaregiversand facilities forthe elderly.)In addition,the Long-Term Care Insurance (Kaigohoken) system launched in 2000.
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修道法学 ３５巻 ２号
The centralgovernmenthasalso addressed problemsrelated to child-rear- ing since the beginning ofthe 1990s. The Childcare Leave Act(Ikuji kyūgyōhō),enacted in 1991,allowsfemale and male employeesto obtain leave untiltheirchildren reach one yearofage. The centralgovernment’s AngelPlan (Enzeru puran)(1994)aimed to increase day nurseriesand pro- mote variouschildcare services. The New AngelPlan (Shin enzeru puran) (1999)covered notonly childcare programsbutalso employment,maternal and children’shealth,and education. The employmentofwomen wasfos- tered in parallelwith the developmentofchildcare services. The BasicAct on Society ofGenderEquality (Danjokyōdōsankaku shakaikihon hō)was enforced in 1999.
Improving the employmentofwomen hascontributed to the welfare regime’sliberalization and itshigherlevelofde-familization. These efforts ofthe centralgovernmentmightbe regarded asan expansion ofwelfare,but Shinkawaremarked thatJapan’sexpenditureson welfare programswere not considerable in comparison with otherdeveloped countries. Although spending on welfare programsforthe elderly can be described asmoder- ately high,spending on welfare programsforchildren waslimited. There- fore,Shinkawaargued thatthe welfare regime did notexperience asuffi- cientrise ofde-commodification,butinstead underwentliberalization.
III. DevelopmentofCommunity Welfare
Although Aratame (2007)also referred to the liberalization ofthe welfare regime during and afterthe 1990s,he mainly focused on the developmentof community welfare (chiikifukushi)forthe elderly during the same period.
Community welfare refersto supportservicesthatlocalgovernmentsand residentscooperatively provide in acommunity. Aratame explained the reformsto the welfare regime thataimed to fostercommunity welfare. He regarded the period after1990 asthe eraofperforming community welfare, following the periodsofconstructing the basicstructure and ofstarting com- munity welfare.
The purpose ofwelfare forthe elderly wasexpanded in thiserafrom relieving poverty to realizing desirable livesforthe elderly. Services expanded from selective to general:welfare programsbegan to assistnot
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