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The Effects of Mental Rehearsal on the Acquisition of Tennis Skills

著者 Yumino Kenichi

journal or

publication title

Bulletin of the Education Faculty, Shizuoka University. Liberal arts and social sciences series

volume 41

page range 277‑285

year 1991‑03‑26

出版者 Shizuoka University. Faculty of Education URL http://doi.org/10.14945/00008344

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The Effects of Mental Behearsal

on the Acquisition of Tennis Skills

Kenichi YuMIN01

(Received OctOber ll,1990)

ABSTRACT

SiXteen female tennis beginners praCtiCed tennis smashes for five days,Half of them practiced it with mental rehearsal QttIう 。 The remainder practiced it without mental rehearsal(NMR).The perfOrmances(a.distance from target points, b.

accuracy of hit angle, c, speed of the ball)of A/1]R rOse dramatically, while the ones of Nヽ lR stayed on the Same levels as the first day. The reasons why the practice withヽ 〔 ]R attained high levels were inferred from a framework of TOTE model that was proposed by Miller,Galanter Pribram(1960).

Substantial research has confirmed the positive  effects of mental rehearsal(h/1R)

。 n the acquisition of sensory motor skills(Prather, 1973; Riley&Start, 1960:Schick 1970;YamauChi,YuminO,&Okuma,1979)。 Success was achieved with maximum effect when L[R was used, not as a substitute for real practice, but as real practice itself

Gcott&Pelliccloni,1982;Weinberg,1982).In additiOn,it had ttaximal time Cwinning, 1949), and wasieffective for novices and intermediate level players more than for advanced players(C)lark, 1960).

However, only a little research has been conducted for the effect of A/1R on the acquisition of tennis skills(Loehr,1979,Weinberg&Gould,1980)。 Weinberg&GOuld

exaΠ lined the effects of sexual difference, 4 cognitive strategies (imagery, positive

self―

efficacy statements, attentive focus and a control conditioD and ability Qdvanced and beginning players)on the acquisition Of a tennis serve. The results showed that none of the cOgnitive strategies imprOved performanc9; only the main factor of ability was significant. They inferred the cause of the null‐ effect of the 4 cognitive strategies including imagery, and attributed the cause to the fact that the learners could not utilize these strategies well enough in order to develop skills, especially a very compli―

cated skill like the tennis serveo However, the effect of cognitive strategies on motor skills is delicate. For this reason, the null― effect of cognitive strategies should be

exalnined by changing the experirnental conditions. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of  ヽ 4R on the acquisition of a tennis smash。

lThe author is gratefill for assistance and advice of Yoshj.ko Harronr.

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278 弓 野 憲 一

METHODS

Subjects

The subjects were L6 female students who ranged in age from 18 to 19. AIi were beginners of tennis. They had been practising for only seven months at the college tennis club. On the day before the practice session (Oth duy), all subjects had a pretest

in smash skills. They hit 40 smashes. The last 30 smashes were rated in 5 grades

according to their distance from a larget. Based on a measure of 30 smashes and every day observation by the author, half of the subjectS were grouped into a MR group and remaining half into Non-MR (NMR) group. Levels of smash skill for both groups were nearly pair-matched. Consequently, there was no significant difference in performance in smash skills between the two groups.

Practice plan

The practice plan is shown in Fig. 1. This is a practice program for 6 days. On the 5th of the practice days (4th day of practice session), only the MR group performed because of rainfall. The MR group was asked to carry out MR for at least 10 minutes before going to bed. I shows more than 30 minutes MR in day time. I shows more

than L0 minutes MR before going to bed. I shows 40 real smashes in the morning.

n :Real practice I r MRI │:MR2 MR group

NMR group

Practice d"y;

Fig。1

Practice plans of MR and NMR groups.

MR 1, MR 2 show 30 or 10 minutes MR.

Mental rehearsal

MR was carried out in the following ways: (1) The subjects watched several srnashes perforrned by a Japan ranking woman player on TV at normal speed and slow speed.

(2) In order to grasp the key points of the smashes, they looked at the abbreviated drawings of the smash skill on a blackboard. (3) In their mind, they made an image

of themselves "smashing" in slow motion. They made a series of images that include

taking back the arm to hit the imagined falling ball with precise timing. (q They

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the Acquisition of Tennis Skills

repeated(1)tO(3).The 1/1R adopted here corFeSpOnds to''external imagery"in Mahoney's (1979)distinction。

Procedure

On the Oth da, of the practice progralrn, all the subjects hit 40 smashes as a pretest.

An observer recorded the points where the b滅

ls bounced. The grouping of MR and NMR was based on both the data and everyday' observation that was consecutively

carried out by one of the author. After the test, they sav「 the key points of the smash constructed from several drawings on the blackboard and simultaneously they heard the general instructions for the smasl praCtiCe.

In a real practice, a player stood at the point P in Fig。

2.For wardng―

up and test trials, each of them hit 40 balls at the best position to smash that were tossed up by T (advanced player with career more than 6 years) aitrning alternately alt the taFget pOint Al and A2.、 The lst 10 trials were for warHling=up and Were excluded

from data.An observer(01)graded the speed of the balls in 3.01,who is a member

of the tennis club, knew the highest speed of the ball. Hence she was able to evaluate the speed of the ball correctly. The practice, including a test,was carried Out in 4 courts simultaneously. Accordingly, each player experienced different tossers everyday.

The position of a player (P) and two targets (Ar, Ar)

.

, a tosser (T)

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280

The data accuracy of

弓 野 憲 一

RESULTS

會 ere taken from 3 points of view:(1)distance from the target point。

(2)

hit angle。 (3)speed of the ball.

E)istance from the target points

ln order to measure the distance fr6m one of the target points, 4 concentric circles

were drawn with 

ё qual proportions. Five points wero given tO a ball which bounced in the center of the circle and 4, 3, 2,and l point were given according tO the distance from the center of the oocentric circles. Four or 5 points were given if a ball bounced

in the lё ft half of the shaded zone when the subieCt ailned at point Al in Fig。  2.

Therefore the best scorё  in a day 16 150(3× 30).Fig。 3a shows a transition of average soores concerning how accurately the balls hit the target point. The score of the L〔 R

grOup increased with eaCh practice day, while those Of NWIR group stayed on the

same level as the lst day.

70

了 :  :  :  :  : fi l i l i

12345

1    2    3    4    5

12345

Fig.3a. Distance frolrn    Fig。 3b. Accuracy of hit

target points.      angle.       Fig。

39。

 Speed of the ball.

A(2:MR― NMR)× B(4:practice day)analysis of variance applied to Fig。 3a data。

Main effect A was not significant(F(1,4)=1.14,nos。

),but main effect B was significamt(F(3,42)=31.00,p<:01)。 Interaction A×

B was also significant(F(3,42)=

18.63, p<〔

. 01)。

 As the interaction was significant, a sub― analySiS Was performedo The

performancё  of MR increased with each practice day(o(3,42)=46.74,pく <.01),whereas that of NMR stayed at the same level as the lst day(q(3,42)〒

2.88,nos。)。

On the 3rd and 5th day,the performaices of MR were superibr tO the ones of NMR Ord:q(1,5の =

4.67,p<.05; 5th:q(1,56)=18.39,p<.01).On lst and 2nd day, NMR got higher

perfOrmances than MR, however the diffeFenCe Was 

ot significant.

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the Acquisiti6n of Tennis Skills 281

Accuracy of hit anglet

T鎖

ent lines,were drawn fronI P tO each concentric ci〕 cle.Three po[nts were given to the ball that nit t鵬

̀α

Ю

 divided between thё

 innermOst 2 1ines,Two points were

given to the bdl tnat hit the 2one divided betweё n the next 2 1ines(exclude 3 points zone).Ome‐ point was‐givtt to the ball that ttit the zone dividd between thel out∝ most

li詭 o CXClude 3耐 2 pttnts 

Юne)。

The baⅧ  that bouwed ottttde the outeFmOSt litts got no sco∝ .闊

mCe t鵬

b∝ t score of a dayお

90(30×30)。

F遺

3b ttows a transition of the aVeragers∞ Ftt On the accuracy of hitiangle.'The 9oores of the MR group in¨ ased with prtttice,while tllode Of the NMR gFOup did nOt cha.nge.

A(2:L/1R・ NMR)×

B(4:practice day)帥

alysis of variancel a.pplied to F贈

3b data。

M4n effect A市 ls neaFly sttnifLは ntO(1,14)■ 3.62,p<.1), and main effect B waS significant(F(3.142)=,31.01,pく

01)。

InteFaCtiOn AXB was』 sO sttnificant(FO,理

の言 36.96,pく。

01).AS the inむ eFaCtio五

瑠颯

s slgnificant,as満 .analySis was peFfoFmed,The 孵rfOrmance of MR increased with each pr¨ the day Q(3,42)=67。 舒 ,p<.01),wheFe郎

lbho one of NMR Istayed at the same lё vel as the lst lday(o(3,42)=.7, n,s。

), On 3rd

and 5慟

day,the peFfOrrnances of MR were superioF to those Of NMR(3rd:q(1,56)=

4。

26,p<.∞ ぅ 5th=q(1,56)=53.83,p<,01)。 Qtt the otheF hand,NMR g9t a higher per・

fOrmm∝ thtt MP on lst day(q(1,56)=12. ,p<・

01)。

Speed og the b劉

1

The speed of tt bl滅 ]was evaluated oo湖 itt tO the loll10Wi咤 3 gttdes;fFame SⅢ Ot

or chip sllot oot l pOint,ordinary Shol印t…

3 pointも and fttt shOt got 5 pOints,。

Accolrdingly,満

e bё

st s∞ re Of a day wals 150(5×

,30)。

F増 ■ ShoWs a transition of the aV師 鎗 e scOres Of t随 s"劇 Ofぬeb』 l.The scOres of the tt igFOup rose remttkably as.a result of mch praCti∝

day,while thOso of the:NMR‐

撃 oup fen sl増

htly。

:A(2:MR≡ NMR)× B(41pr

tice day)an4y,お

。彗

Vttian"applied to Fig 3c data,

Mttn effect‐ A was significant(F(1‐ ,14)=20.66,p<.01)│,and main effect B was sttnifi・

cant(FO.42)=16.23っ

0<.01).Inter tion A× B waS‐ 刹 So sttnifiCant〈 F(3,421)=15。 錦

,

p<,01)。 As t堕 e interacti61n was slgnifimit,a sub=analysis Was performed.The per・

formanoe Of MR:in∝

∽sed with each practice day(q(3,42)=31.44,p<.01):On the

other hl帥

d,thatlof NME stayed smme lettl as the lst day(qO。

42)=。

61,nosl)On

3rd and 5th lね

y,performances of MR were superioF tO thOse of NMR(3rd:q(1,56)=

21,03,p<.∞‐ 1 5th:q(1:56)手 47.60,p<.01):On lst and 2nd day,the prfOrmances of NMR were as samelas tho《 発 of h/1Rざ

DISCUSS10N

MR group showed romaFkable pJOgFess in a1l of the,scё iFeS Of(1)the distance from

the target poin胡 (2)the accuracy of the hit a.ngle and 13)the l鞭 eed Of the ball.These

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282 弓 野 憲 一

findings are inconsistent with Weinberg&Gould(1980)who found that mental pre―

paration did nOt irnprove performance on motor task inv01ving speed, balance, and accuracy. Therefore, the facilitating effects of cognitive strategies on the performance of tennis skills appear to be practice plan specific.

Why was our practice plan of A/1:R so effective? There seenl to exist several reasons.

Based on the TOTE model,that was originally proposed by LCiller,Galanter&Pribram (1960), let us analyze the facilitating effects Of L[R on acquiring the smash skillo Our TOTE model(Fig。  4)has 4 phases;(1)search for a suitable piヤ oting point:this process includes an indication to a tossed ball that helps the player to measure the exact height and direction of the ball; accordingly it helps the player to antiCipate the plaCe the ball falls,(2)taking back the racket,(3)preparation for hit,(4)hit ball and fo1low througho Eaёh phase proceeds alone or interconnectively with otherso The faё ilitating effectt rnust be explaitted based on the modelo Let us discuss the facilitating effects on the model.

In exploring the source of the effects, the fol10wings emergё  as cFitiCal factors:

(1)By watching Video and abbreviated drawings, the playeFS Of L[R group cOuld

make a whole plan of hitting action that corresponds to the whole 'TOTE units in

Fig。 4。

(2)He could connect between  the sub― skills that were already mastered and make them up into a Wh01ly organized skill。 (3)He could pay attention to the key points of hitting forHl;one of the authors expounded the key points of the smash skill to the players. In both MR and real practice, the players cOnsecutiVely focussed atten―

tion to the points.Such reflective behavior must have accelerated the speed of acquiring smash skills,(4)He could grasp the good tilning of execution of the sub― skills of smash;A smash is composed of phases in Fig。

 4。

 Each phase has a few basic TOTE units. As each phase proceeds alone and/or together with other phases,the basic unit also begins and 'ends alone and//or together with other units. It is plausible that MR helped the player judge good tilning about when should he start and finish each

unit。

(5)As  」 acobson (1930) pOinted Out, ilnagery on physical mOvement iS deeply concerned with kinesthetic movement. Therefore, MR played a silnilar role of physical

training。 (6)As A/1R was easy to repeat,he could practice a lot of smashes with less

fatigue.

All or some of the above reasons must have improved dramatically the smash skills of the A/1R group. However, there was another reason:The WIR group practiced more time than the NA4R group, and this should be taken into considerationo Practice tilne is usually an important factor in motor skill learning. But thiS faCtor alone can not explain fully the remarkable progress of the L[R group. As the performance of the Nル IR group stayed at the same level as the lst day, it would be hard to expect the same developing pattern in both groups, even if thё  Nヽ

4R group had the same practice

time as thё  MR grOup.

On the 4th day of the progranl, it was impossible to make a real practiCe because

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283 The Effects of Mental Rehearsal on the Acouisition of Tennis Skills

︵ 一 一 ﹃一︒一 一 一 o 一¨.一 一 一 ︶

  Lo ︵ 一一

o 一や ﹂

L﹂

︶ o L︒

0 ︵ 一 0 ■   L   一   O o 一 ¨ C 一 ︶

¨  ︵

・ oC コ ∽ ・・

  一 一 ¨

¨ ﹂ 一   一 一¨

¨ ︶ 一 ﹂

の 一 3 一一一 一 ﹂ ︶

o ﹂ ︵ 一o

E 一や

﹂ 0 >一

E ︶ L CO

o 一 一一 E

〇 0

︒  

3 o ﹁ L

﹁ 

﹁ 一

一 ︶ o

︵ 一 一 コ     一一 C  

0 0﹂ や

鎌 朝 螺餞 彗職

o や

工 0﹂

い の 国 い

一 ●0 C一や ﹂ 一 at ︒ > コ

国 ∽

﹁  ﹂ に 30

o 一∽

 仁 ﹁ や0 0一 一 一 0L

﹁ ●0

  ´∽ 0  

︐ 一

● 一  一 年一 一 o> ∞ C一 一 ﹂

日 ↑ い の

L O 牛   C一

﹁ C X o

い ∽ 口 い

Fig.4. A TOTE model of a smash.

(9)

284 弓 野 憲 一

Of Fainfall.Only the MR group had MR on that day.The rapid increase in perfor‐

mance o‐ f NIR group in day 3‐ ‑5 can be attributed to MRI, nOt to the reminiscence

resulting from a bttё ak in real practice. As the performance of NMR grOup stayed at the,same level during these days, it could be concluded that a suitable rest with MR in a1long training prOgram imprOveS skills effectively.

After 5 days' practice, the players weFe ,aSked on the mOtivation for practice. All of the MR group answered tttlt thё y青 anted further]Ⅶ R and real practice.The reason for this positive answer was that they fbund themselves competbnt in idevelloping skills using MR‐ , Such experiences must have ralsed the playersl motivation foF the lpractioe:

daly by day.on the contrary, most of the NMR gFOup answered that thOy didn't wantも

o continue prtttice with ttt test,For t NMR group player,this expe」

ment誠

praё ti∞ with the t∝ t was no betteF than the usud one。

REFERENttS

Clark,L‐

.V,(1960)The effё

ct of mental practice on the deve10pment Of l certain motor skill.R

FCL Oηダウ

;31,560‑569̀

Jacobson,E。 (1930)Electdctt measurements of neuro■ muscultt states durl蛇

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o/R"ο

q動

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o彰

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(196の The effects of the spaci」 暗 。 f mental and physicd pr∝ tices on the acquisition or a physical skill.ス 濤ι

ttα

′ 麦 滉 」

o秘

′ %配 o/

f拗

sjcα′重ね勉ιjο

, 20; 13・ 16.    :

Scott,M.D。 ,&Pelliccioni,L,Jr。 (1982)Don't 

ё

hoke:How athletes can become

inherso E壺

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Shick,J。

(19‐

70)Effects of mentd pFactice on selected volleyball skills for∞ llege

wOmen.Rあ

肥λ

 ttι

θ

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actiCe in lettning a motor

skilll&se赫

.o地

滋ο ′ り ,20,432‑435。

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(10)

the Acquisition of Tennis Skills 285

strategies and motor performance: A review and critique. Quest, 33, 1"95-213.

Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (1980) Influence of cognitive strategies on tennis serves of players of high and 1ow ability. Perceptual and motor sleills, 50, 663-666.

Yamauchi, M. ,Yumino, K. , & Okuma, Y. (1979) The effects of mental rehearsal on memory of sensory-motor tasks. Proceedings of 21th Annual Conuention of the

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(in Japanese).

Fig。 1 Practice  plans  of MR  and  NMR  groups.

参照

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