Pragmatic Functions of Stand-Alone Vocative
著者
Takenori Takahashi
journal or
publication title
dialogos
number
14
page range
19-49
year
2014-02
URL
http://id.nii.ac.jp/1060/00006637/
Creative Commons : 表示 - 非営利 - 改変禁止 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.ja論 文
PragmaticFunctionsofStand-AloneVocatives
TakenoriTHkahashi 1.Introduction1．l.BackgroundandPurpose
Traditionally,theliteraturehasidentifiedthreefilnctionsofvocatives: 1)sunnnoningattention,2)addresseeidemification,and3)themaintainingand reinfbrcingofsocialrelationship､e.g.Quirke/α/.1985,Biberαα/.1999,Leech l999).Buildingonthisbroadcategorization,thepresentpaperaimstoprovide amoredetaileddescriptionandclassificationofthepragmaticfimctionsof vocativeS,withaparticularfbcuson@6stand-alone''vocatives. 1.2.Contribution Bibererq/.(1999)exammethesyntacticpositionofvocatives,andtheynnd that"hnalpositionwasmostpreferred(70%ofthedataanalysed),e.g.Le/jgo, MQ",fbllowedbyntial(10%),e､9.M"M/e/bgo,stand-alone(10%),e.9.D"/, andthemedial(10%),e.9.1'"7sol"PaMcα"7脚αke""(Mumhy&Fa汀2012). Whilemanystudieshavelookedattheuseofvocativesthatoccurinsentence-mitial,-medial,and-malpositions,hspaperis,tothebestofmyknowledge,the firsttofbcussquarelyandexclusivelyonthefimctionsofstand-alonevocatives. 1.3.Methodology Thisisadescriptivestudybasedontheanalysisofdata廿omseveralsourcesm
c
l
u
d
m
g
n
o
v
e
l
s
,
f
i
l
m
s
,
n
e
w
s
p
a
p
e
r
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
s
,
a
n
d
t
h
e
h
t
e
r
n
e
t
.
'
20 TakenoriThkahashi
2.UtteranceSandSpeechActs
Letusbeginwiththefbllowingquotations.Theseareabout(therelation between)thelinguisticfbrmofanutteranceanditsillocutionalyfbrce,andserve aspointsofdeparturefbrthispaper. (1)a・AccordingtoAustin,everyutteranceservestoperfbnnanillocutionaly act.(Recanatil987) b.AIstonsuggeststhateveryutterancehasaSpeecルac/po/e""α/・That is,fbreveryutterance,thereisasetofpossiblespeechactsthatthe utterancecouldrealize,includingactsthatarenon-literaland/or indirect.(Twitchell&Nunamaker2004) c.[A]nutterancemaybeofanylength:itmayconsistofasingleword, asinglephraseorasinglesentence…;itmayconsistofasequenceof sentences;itmayalsoconsistofoneormoregrammaticallyincomplete sentence-廿agments;anditmayhaveonesentenceorsentence-廿agment parentheticallyincludedwithinanother.(Lyonsl977) AsHurfbrd(2012)rightlypointsout,"[s]ingle-wordutterances…have illocutionaryfbrce,justaswhole-sentenceutterancesdo.'' (2)a.Achildoranapeusesaone-wordutterancetodosomething:fbr example,asinglewordmayfilnctionasanimperative,demanding action・Thisisentirelycompatiblewiththeutterancealsohaving propositionalcontent,predicatingaboutsomething・Whatisthepointof anorderifitisnotaboutsomething,notnecessarilyonlytheaddressee？ Harms(2004)suggeststhatthebestrough-and-readytranslationfbrthevervetleopardalanncallisaconjunctionofdeclarativemeﾉでsα /eOpα〃αro"〃andimperativeDoso〃α力/"gα加"/"/Theproblem inargumentsaboutthemeaningofvervetcallsisthatwearetrying totranslatefromasimplesystemwiththreecallsintoahuman languagewithavastarrayofcalls.InEnglish,thesingleword/eOpaﾉ域 consideredasanouninthelexicon,clearlydoesnotmeanthesame thingasthewholecompoundsentence777erehαノe叩α”α”""αα” 伽”〃e/ﾙ加gα加z〃〃/Consideredasanouninthelexicon,thefbnn /e叩α〃isanabstraction,strippedoutofitspossiblecontextsofuse.But saythesinglewordLeOpα〃/inareal-lifbsimationlikethatofavervet, andwhatitconveysis｡There'saleopardaroundanddosomething aboutit'.Ifyoudidn'tknowthis,youwouldn'tlastlong.Vervetsdon't havetheluxurythatEnglishspeakershaveofcomparingsentence-like meaningswiththetheoreticaldenotationsofwordsconsideredpurely aslexicalitems.Achildattheone-wordstagewhoisfiightenedofdogs maysayDog/,intending,@There'sadoghere,anddosomethingabout it!'､Indeedthat'sthekindofthingweintendwhenwe(seriously)shout 例陀/Utteranceofasinglewordwhichhappenedtobeanouninadult languagehasbothillocutionaryfbrce(e.g.imperative)andpropositional content,predicatingsomethingofthecurrentsituation.(Hurfbrd2012) b.[O]ne-wordutterancessuchas叩p/eareactions.Theirfimctiondepends onthe廿ameworkoftheactiongame:itcanbeadeictic-representative act&thisisanapple'oradirectiveact.givemetheapple',etc.(Weigand 2002) Thestatementsin(2)lendsupporttoapproachingstand-alonevocatives throughspeechacttheory.VOcatives-names,words,andphrasessuchasJnck,
22 TakenoriTakahashi ルo"ey,yo〃肋s/q"-canbeusedtodbthings.Forinstance,ifonevenomously uttersyo"d""6"rα〃,oneperfbnnsanillocutionaryactofinsulting,andby doingsoonemightperfbrmtheperlocutionaryactofwounding,shaming,or hurtingthereferentofthevocative.AIsonotethattheillocutionaryfbrceofa vocativeutterancedependsonavarietyofcontextualfactors・Forexample,as Dunkling(1990)suggests,amanusingthevocativeyo"cか〃6"""toamale 廿iend6Gmayactuallybecongratulatinghimonhissexualprowess,asthetone ofvoiceandfacialgestureofthespeakerwillmakeclear.''Notefilrtherthat "illocutionaryfbrceoperatesacrossaspectrumofstrengths"(Briggs2001). Ⅳりutteredinafirmtoneofvoicehasastrongillocutionaryfbrceofdenial, disagreementorrefilsal,whileutteringitinasofitonewouldreduceorweaken thefbrce.Thesameholdsfbrvocatives.Asanexample,whenparentstrytostop theirchild'sbadbehavior,theyoffenusethechild'snameasasynonymfbrsiOpor 伽"γ,andinsuchacasehowthenameisuttered(e.g.theaccompanyingtoneof voice)affectsthedegreeofstrengthoftheillocutionaryfbrce: (3)a.""70/ﾉ7ercq/なルerc〃〃b〃α〃e〃7qge""ecﾙ肋"gro"e John. b､""7or"erve/k"e"cMdb〃α耐e・ JOHN! Both(3a)and(3b)havethesameillocutionarypoint(thatoftheaddressee,John, stoppinghismisbehavior),butitispresentedwithdifferentstrengths:(3b)carries
a
s
t
r
o
n
g
e
r
i
l
l
o
c
u
t
i
o
n
a
r
y
f
b
r
c
e
t
h
a
n
(
3
a
)
.
2
A
n
y
w
a
y
,
m
y
a
s
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n
h
e
r
e
i
s
t
h
a
t
vocativesarepotentiallyconnectedtoactions,orthatitisworthviewingvocative utterancesasillocutionalyacts.Withthisinmind,wenowlookatthevarioususes ofstand-alonevocativesandconsidertheirpotentialillocutionaryfbrce.3.AnalysisofthePragmaticFunctionsofStand-AloneVocatives 3．1.Attention-Seeking Oneofthebasicfimctionsofastand-alonevocativeistoseektheattentionof thepersonaddressed. (4)aG6Thasos1'' Hetumedatthesoundofhisname,gazingacrossthed加inghalltosee threeofhisclassmateswatchinghim廿omwheretheywereseatedat oneofthetables. [M] b.KIP:〃α"α、 肋e"""s/o//7evo/ce.Hes/epso"/Q"7ec"k"ess. HANA:(happy)Kip.
"
"
/
i
e
g
o
e
s
/
o
/
i
e
/
"
.
3
[EP] c.Sarapulledtheblanketsupoverherheadandtriedtoblockoutthe soundofJackrustlingaroundgettingdressed・Shewaswannandcozy andutterlyrelaxed. ､6Honey?" Shepulledtheblanketdownandopenedhereyestofindhimstanding overher. 66I'mgoingintotheMountainfbrafewhoursbutl'llbebackbefbrethe partystartstohelp.Promise." [TWWA] d.AssoonashewasinsidehespottedtherowofmonitorswiththealTival anddeparturemfbnnationandheadedovertocheckherflight'sstams.24 TakenoriTakahashi 6cJack1'' Noneedtocheck.TherewasDianewavingathim,standingnearthe doorhe'djustentered.Shewasluggingabigpurseandpullingalarge caITy-onassherushedoverandgavehimahug. [TWWA] Althoughtheillocutionarypointistocatchtheaddressee'sattention,the illocutionaryfbrcecanvarydependingontheprosodic,pamlinguistic,orkinesic cuesgivenbythespeaker,aswellasontheaddressfbnnemployedbythespeaker. (5)a.Iwasstillalittlebitskeptical.Perhapsitwasjustsomeonewholooked similar..｡辿血且2"Ipalledhernamehesitantly,notatallcertainthat shewouldturnaround.Yes,itwasindeedshe!Thelightofrecognition Hashedbackassherushedfbrward. [SW] b.Shewasalmostoutthedoor,whenhermothercalledhername hesitantly. [T] c.TheyenteredtheroomjustasapitchedlaughescapedGalTy'slips.The scenebefbrethemwasstrange.Garrysatinthemiddleoftheroom, talkingtoagreenplush-bunnywithredeyes.Aroundthemweremore plush-bunniesandthegiantportraitinthebackwasabunnyaSwell. Ibwasconfilsedandalittleconcerned.Whywasherfriendtalkingtoa toybunny?",..Gany...?''Mary§旦型hisnamehesitantly,alittlenervous herselfabouthowGalTywaSbehaving. [MG] d.@GQllinn2''ShegpQkghisnameWithdiffidence.｡6Quinn…I.''[…]"What
isit,honey?''Oncemorehisvoiceofferedcomfbrt. [TS] e.Wedrovefbranothertenminutes,thesilencebetweenusuneasybutnot hostile. "Troy?"Igaidhisnamegently,breakingthetension. 66Yeah.'' 6GHowyoudoingbackthere?'' [BS] fWereachalongblackvehicleattheendofthewalkwayandl'mtold towatchmyheadaslgetin.Ifallintotheseat.Thedoorisslammed, startlingme.HeatherandScottarealreadyinside.Feelingprotected bytheglasswindowthatnowstandsguardin廿ontofme,Ifindthe couragetolookoutatthewallofpeoplewejustwalkedthrough. They'restillcallingmyname,demandingmyattention [U] g.Adeepvoicecalledtheblindman'sname-abruptlyand unceremoniously,inthemannerofasamuraisummoninganinferior GCHoiChi!'' Hoichiwastoomuchstartled,fbrthemoment,torespond;andthevoice calledagaln1natoneofharshcomman〔9 66Hoichi!'' [KSSST] h.&6Katniss!Katniss!''theyshoutfromtheirpaintedlips [SF] i.Whenlreachedthesmallwoodenshanties,therewasnosignofWalter Tuckeranywhere.IholleredhisnameafewtimeSbutgotnoresponse [OCC]
26 ThkenoriThkahashi j.SheheardHarlanmhernamewithurgency. [K] k.Iwasabouthalfwayupthemountainwhenlheardthescreamofthe boysm_QmmynameWithurgency. [ACAYC]
l.Afewhourspassedandtheirconversationbecamemoresporadicas
Harlanstartedtodoze. c6Hey, [K] 旦型l皿2"Janereachedinthebackseatand皿型himgently m.SheuntiedHarlan'sblindfbldandnudgedhimintheshoulder.Hedidn't respond.GGHarlan!"Shenudgedhimagainwithmoreurge n C buthedidn'tmove
[K] n..6Daniel?''Saratouchedhisshoulderandpulledhimoutofhisthoughts G6Sorly,Iwasthinkingaboutsomething.'' [TWWA] o."Psst1''
Danielfrownedinhissleepandturnedhisheadaway廿omthefly
buzzingaround. c6Psst1Comeon,wakeup1''Huh？Sincewhen−oh､Heknewthatvoiceandreluctantlycrackedan
eyelid. ‘℃harlie?'' c6Shh,keepitdown.，，D
a
n
i
e
l
b
l
i
n
k
e
d
a
n
d
p
e
e
r
e
d
a
t
h
i
s
w
i
n
d
o
w
.
E
v
e
n
t
h
o
u
g
h
t
h
e
c
u
r
t
a
i
n
w
a
s
drawnandhedidn'thavehisglasseson,hestillshouldbeabletosee thesuncominginaroundtheedgesofthefabric・Therewasnosun.Thep q sunhadn'tevenstartedcomingupyet. c6T'early,Charlie.''Heburroweddeeperunderhiscovers c6Daniell''Thistimeahandgraspedhisahoulderandshookit [TWWA] 6GMom.mom.moooom ''Ibeganaswithmybrother 6&Yes,dear.'' 66Ihadadream.'' 66Whaddyathinkingson…atthishour?''My伽heryawnedinfrustration ashelooksattheclockbyhisbedside. 6GBequietEric,theboy'stalkingtome.Whatisitdear?''Mymother retorts． [MH] 66Mom…Mom…Moooom!''cameamufiled…y、 [KESHD] r."Mom.M-O-O-O-O-M!''Iyelled廿omthefronthall [CLH] s.6cTOM1'' Noanswer 6CTOM!'' Noanswer. &6What'sgonewiththatboy,Iwonder?YOuTOM!" […］ Shewenttotheopendoorandstoodinitandlookedoutamongthe tomatovinesand&1impson"weedsthatconstitutedthegarden.No Tbm.Soshelifieduphervoiceatananglecalculatedfbrdistanceand shouted: 6GYo-u-uTOM!''
28 TakenoriTakahashi [ATS] t."Beeeeethi"IheardAlfiedo'svoiceoutsidetheroom,makingmyback straighteninaninstant.｡6Girl,youasleeporsome?'' "No,no,''Ihurriedlyresponded,hopingitwasIoudenough,@.I'mjust writing.Comeonin,thedoorisn'tlocked.'' [SD] u.Elliotrantotheplayground.Ateacherwasalreadythereandwasyelling names.cGBenCooper!Peter!Getoutoftheway!''Thewomanshouted. cGDickieStabler!'' [H] v."E"ﾉ．/α""〃/gl''sheXCllQJ. [K] w.WhenTomreachedthelittleisolatedframeschoolhouse,hestrodein briskly,withthemannerofonewhohadcomewithallhonestspeed. Hehunghishatonapegandflunghhnselfintohisseatwithbusmess-likealacrity.Themaster,thronedonhighinhisgreatsplint-bottomann -chair,wasdozing,lulledbythedrowsyhumofstudy・TheintelTuption rousedhim. 66ThomasSawyer!" Tbmknewthatwhenhisnamewaspronouncedinfilll,itmeanttrouble. [ATS]
3.2.AlertingtheAddresseetotheEnsuingSpeechAct
Inmanycases,stand-alonevocativesfimctionasadevicetofbcusthe addressee'sattentiononwhatfbllows,orserveasaprelude,asitwere,tothe upcomingspeechact(s).Forexample,in(6a)below,thevocative:eSean?"isused asanattention-gettingdeviceprecedingtheinterrogativespeechact("Arewealmostthere?").In(6b),theladyatthedeskseeksPonyboy'sattentionbycalling hisnamebefbresheperfbnnsthepennissivespeechact(G6You're廿eetogo.'').In (6c),thevocative"BonnieThte!''isusedasanalerter(attentiongetter),itsfUnction beingtoalerttheaddressee'sattentiontotheensuingdirectivespeechact(.6Come tothefiDntoftheroomthisinstant!''). (6)a.Sean'sfathergrabbedthesledandhestartedupthehill,alreadya fewyardsbehindSean・Togethertheytrudgedthroughthedeepsnow, inchingtheirwaytothetop. 66Sean?''hisfathergasped,exhausted廿omtheclimb. "Yeah,Dad,''repliedSean,lookingback c6Arewealmostthere?'' [BH] b.DalTyslannnedthedoorclosedandranupthestairs.Hewalkedintothe schoolomce,igloringPonyboywholookedupwhenhewalkedm. CGI'mheretopickPonyboyCurtisup,''DalTytoldtheladyatthedesk. Sheglaredathimoverthetopofherglasses. "Ponyboy?''theladysaid,monotone,lookingattheyoungestCurtis. 6GYes,ma'am?''heasked. 66You're廿eetogo.'' [PK] c.Mrs.Walters,themathsteacher,付ozeatthechalkboard・Theclass alltumedtheirheads,fbllowinghergaze.@6BonnieTate!''thewoman sputtered.Bonnie'sheartwaslikeiceinherchest.Shewasveryaware ofthefeelofherchair'splasticseatdirectlyagainstherskin.@6Yes Ma'am?''sheaskedtremulously. C6Cometothefrontoftheroomthisinstant!''
30 ThkenoriTakahashi [SS]
3.3.AlertingtheAddresseetoExtra-linguisticCircumstanceS
Stand-alonevocativescanbeusedtoalerttheaddressee'sattentiontoan extra-linguisticoMect,event,orstateofaffairs. (7)"Marcus.Marcus,''shecalled, buthehadnointerest [HF] tryingtogethimtolookoutonthepond Supposeyourthree-year-oldsonwasacrossthestreetand,seeingacar approaching,youyelledhisname.Inthatcase,whatyoudidinyellinghisnameis alertyoursontotheimpendingdanger. (8)a.EverythinghappenedtoofastinsideDemi'shead.Thedriverwouldn't beabletoseeHenrysohewouldberunoverandthenhewoulddie. Shit.DemiimmediatelyraninHenry'sdirection,yellinghisname trv1n tomakehimpayattentiontothecarcominginfilll_Speed [DF] b.FivewolvesmovedtotakedownHeidi.Icalledouthernametowarn hgr,butamanburstoutofthewoodsnotfaraway.Hevaultedover scamperingimpswithouteffbrt. [KCN] Thevocativein(9)servestodirecttheaddressee'sattentiontothe"ese"ce oftheSpeaker.(9)Bythetimewegotinthegate,theplayerswerecomingoutofthelocker roonl there InoticedCameron,solcalledhisnametolethimknowthatlwas ccCAMERON.CAMERON.'' C6Hey,Ms.Shelle,I'mgladyoumadeit.'' [FBTC] Herearesomesimilarexamples (lO)a.Thenl…fbundhersittingonthesofa,readingsomething notlcemypresencebVcallinghername Imadeher [IR] b.OneofthechildrencametomeandsaidthatKamalawasveryangry andwouldnotcometoeatherfbod.Atthisperiod,Mrs.Singhwas absentinCalcutta.IwentinandfbundKamalasittinginhercorner, verymuchdispleasedtoallappearances.Iapproachedherandcalled ernametomakeknowntohermvIaresence,butshedidnotmovenor evenlookatme. [DWCM] c.WindDancertrackedandlocatedChumani,thenlefithegrassyterrain torideintothetree-blanketedfbothillswhichsweptupwardintothe sacredmountains.Heassumedshewasseekingprotectiveshelterin oneofthePahaSapa'scanyons丘omtheapproachingstormandhoped hecouldcatchuptoherbefbreitstruck.Whenthetrailsignsindicated shehaddismounted,hereasonedshecouldnotbefaraheadofhim;her destinationmustbeanearbycaveorapositionbeneathlowandwide ove巾angingledgesofblackrock,hedecided.Tbkeep廿omfrightening
32 her,he [LW] TakenoriTakahashi shoutedhernametomakeherawareofhisDresence 3.4.DirectiveFunction Ofien,stand-alonevocativesareusedtotrytogettheaddresseetodo something.Inotherwords,theycanfunctionasdirectivesintermsoftheir illocutionaryfbrce.(Noteherethatadirectiveactisanactinwhichthespeaker attemptstogetthehearertocaﾉ.ryO2"SO"TeqC伽〃orto肺加gα加"/so"7esm/eQ' q"h".) Oneofthemostbasicdirectivespeechactsperfbnnedinutteringastand-alonevocativeis,ofcourse,thespeechactequivalenttocGListentowhatlamabout tosay.''However,stand-alonevocativescansignalavarietyofotherdirective intentionsaswell,dependingonthecontextand/orsituation.Forexample,a teachermightcallastudent'snameinclasstogethim/hertoansweraquestion, tocometothe廿ontoftheclass,towakeup,toquietdown,etc.In(11)below,the vocative@℃harlie''isutteredwiththeintentionofgettingtheaddresseeto"getthe door.ウヲ (11)Allwasquietwhenhewalkedintothehouse.Standinginthehall,he heardthefaintsoundsofmusicoverhead,whichmeantMommustbein theattic.Therewasnosoundofhisdadsohewaseitherdownstairsin thebasementoroutinthegarage.[…］ Hehadbarelyreachedthedoortohisroomwhenthedoorbellrang. Damn.WithMomupstairsandDadwhoknowswhere,hewasthe cIosest. "Charlie,''heheardhismother'svoiceandgrinnedtohimself "I'llgetit,''hecalledandhurrieddownstairs
[TWWA] Seealsothefbllowingexamples (12)a.Yearsago,whenwewerestationedatFortHuachuca,Anzona,myson, husband,mother-in-lawandlwenttovisitthesetwhereMr・Landon was61mingR"ﾉ'erMzｲゆ岬Therehewas,withhisbrilliantsmile. Mymother-in-lawkeplcaIlln2outhlsnametrVm2toRethlplclure Shemusthavecalledhim5or6times.EachtimeMr.Landonturned towardherandnashedhissmile・Hewasvelypatient. [Inthiscase,themother-in-lawcalledouttheaddressee'snametoget himtotumtowardher(soshecouldtakepicturesofhisface).] [HYEMML] b.Customer:Waiter! [Vbcativeusedtocallthewaiterover(toorder,askfbrthecheck,etc.).] c.Heopenedthe廿ontdoorandyelled,｡6Honey,I'mhome!''withDiane partiallyhiddenbehindhim.､6Whoa,somethingsmellsgood,''he noted. GGYou'renotkidding,''Dianewhispered. InsteadofSara,Charlieappeared廿omthekitchen.66Hi,Dad-oh!'' G6Shh!''Jackshushedhimbefbreheshoutedoutthenameandruined thesumrise. 66Mom!''Charlieyelledinstead..cDad'shome!'' ThistimeinsteadofSaraappearingitwasDanielboundingdownthe stairstocheckoutthecommotion.Charlieputhisfingertohislips andshushedhisbrotherjustasJackhadshushedhim.Daniellooked confilseduntilCharliepointedoutDianewhowasfairlywellhidden
34 Thkenori'Inkahashi behindJack 6cSara!''Jackyelledagain GfMom!''Charliecalledout [TWWA] d.IrememberoneSouthA丘icanstudentwhosedissertationcommittee Ichaired.IhadnevermethimuntilhisgraduationceremonyatUI. WhentheycalledhisnametoreceiyChisdegree,Iwasstunnedtosee himmakehiswayuptherampinamotorizedwheelchair. [FBORF] e.Afierafewmoments,Louisgotup,shakinghishead,hiseyeslooking sad.Hestartedwalkingupthestairs.
"皿''HalTyCaⅡedouttrymgtogethimlostolg Buthedidn't・He
wenttohisroomanddidn'tcomedownagainthatnight [TM] fccEmma.''ThewayClaytonspokemnameIrymtosoothemE,raised myhackles. [E] g.WhenJay-Zexitedthestage,thecrowdchantedhisname,askingfbr moreperfbnnances,butitwasEminem'stime [AS] Aprohibitiveact,bydefinition,isclassifiedasadirectiveactsinceitisanact ofdirectingsomeonetostoporre廿ainfiomdoingsomething (13)a.66HolyCow,Daniel!" SaraturnedaroundtoseeDanielstandinginthedoorwaylooking emba汀assed？
GGOh,no,''shebreathed.､6Whatonearthhappened?'' DanieltriedtosmileandwincedasSaramovedtowardhim.@6Sit down,''sheordered. Heobedientlyslidintooneofthekitchenchairs.Charliefbllowedhim intothekitchenandleanedaroundhismotherfbracloserlook. ‘℃oolshiner,''headmired. .6gharlie,''Sarawamedwithoutlookingathim. G6I'mjustsaying…” 66Don't.'' [TWWA] b.Rogerwatchedhisgrandsonastheboyfbllowedthepairwithhiseyes. @GIt'snotpolitetostare,son,''henoted. Alexkeptwatchingthetwo. "AleX,"Rogercalledouthisname,tryingtogettheboytolookaway 廿omthestrangers [PT] Aninterrogativespeechact,too,canbeclassifiedasdirectivebecauseit isanattempttogettheinterlocutortodosomething,i.e.,toprovideananswer orinfbrmation(cfWilson&Sperberl998).In(14a),fbrexample,thevocative utterance6GDaniel?''isintendedasadirectiveillocutionaryact-thatis,requesting orrequiringtheaddresseetotalkabout66whathashimspooked.'' (14)a.66Comehere."Jacklightlytuggedontheboy'sannandpulledhimover tothecouch.66Sitdown.'' 66Ihavelotsofworktodo.''Danielstaredathisfeet. Jacktuggedsomemoreuntiltheyweresittingsidebyside.@6Youcan
36 TakenoriTakahashi getbacktoworkafierwetalkandgetsomelunch,''hepromised. 6GTalkaboutwhat?''NowDanielwasstaringathishandsfbldedinhis lap.Jackfiguredthatwassomekindofprogress. GcTalkaboutwhateverhasyousospooked.'' ccI'mnotspooked.'' GcYeah,well,you'regivingaprettygoodimpersonationofsomeone who'sspooked.'' Jackwaitedseveralmoreseconds・Nothing．GGSomething'sgoingon. Youneedtotalktome.'' Stillnothing.Heconsideredhisnextwords.@cIthoughtyoutrusted Ine." Daniel'sheadshotup.66Ido!ItrustyouJack,morethananyone.'' CcThenwhywOn'tyoutalktome?'' nleblondeheadbegantodropagambuthstheJackslippedafinger underthebOy'schintostophim. LcDaniel?''hequestioned Therewasalong,strainedsilencebutJackwasdetenninedtowaitout hiSSmbbomkid. [TWWA] b.6GThenDadsaidtherewasonemoregiftunderthetree.Hedugaround andfbunditbutitwasjustanenvelopeanditwasreallylight・Itfelt likeitwasemptysoldidn'tknowwhattothink.Untillopenedit.And guesswhatwasinit?'' 6cUncleCharlie?''Thekidproddedwhenthemandidn'timmediately respond. Oops,he'dbeenlostinhisownthoughts.Hisalmostnephewwas lookingupexpectantly.@GIdon'tknow.Whatwasit?''
[TWWA] c.Janewatchedtheheadlightsloomcloserintherearviewmirror.Asit approached,thevehicleslowed.Shekepthereyespinnedinthemirror, herheartracmgfasterasitmovedcloser.Andthen,thefiashinglights caIneon． […］ ThepatrolcareasedupbehindtheMustang. […］ Securingthegununderthedriver'sseat,shewatchedthecopgetout ofhiscar.Atfirstglance,heappearedyoungbythewayhemoved. Shesensedslightapprehensionfromhim,indicativeofhowarookie amblesuptoavehiclelateatnight.Catchingsightofherselfinthe milTor,sheconcoctedthefirstsnnltthatenteredhermmd.Burymgher headonthesteeringwheel,shepressedonhercutlipuntilitopened andbloodshotout.Sheheardthetap-taponthedriver'ssidewindow andsawtheharshfiasmightbeamente血gthecar.Forcmgherselfmto character,shelefihercopvibebehindandassumedtheroleofavictim. 66Ma'am2''theyouthfillvoiceasked. [K] Thestrengthofthedirectiveillocutionaryfbrceconveyedbyavocative utterancemayvalydependingonthecontextandmannerinwhichthevocativeis used.ConsideLfbrinstance,thefbllowingexamples.(13a)isrepeatedhereas(15a). (l5)a.[…］ ‘℃ooIshiner,''headmired. ‘℃harlie,''Sarawamedwithoutlookingathim
38 TBkenoriTakahashi "I'mjustsaying…” c6Don't.'' [TWWA] b.$℃harlie!''Sarawamedinamusement G6I'mnottouching,I'mjustlooking.''Charliescannedtheunusually largepileofgifisunderthetree. [TWWA] Thevocative(ccCharlie'')in(15a)carriesastrongerillocutionalyfbrcethanthatin example(15b). 3.5.ConfrmativeFunction Stand-alonevocativescanbeusedtoseekconfimlationastotheaddressee's identity,presence,attendance,etc.,asinthefbllowingexamples.Example(5a) presentedinSection3.lisrepeatedbelowas(16a). (16)a.Iwasstillalittlebitskeptical.Perhapsitwasjustsomeonewholooked similar..6Justina?''Icalledhernamehesitantly,notatallcertainthat shewouldturnaround.Yes,itwasindeedshe!Thelightofrecognition Hashedbackassherushedfbrward. [SW] b.@cMr・Curtis?''avoiceattheotherendofthelineasked. GcYes,ma'am.Howmaylhelpyou?'' [PK] c.<Whoisknocking?'Sheasked,stillstandingbyherbed.｡Itisme Iwunna,yourhusband.'Whensheheardthenameandrecoglizedthe voice,shelefiherinnerroomandmovedfasttothemaindoor.She
peepedthroughanopeningatthedoorandcalledhisnametomake surehewastheone [MMAA] d.ccPsst!'' Danielfiownedinhissleepandtumedhisheadaway廿omthefly buzzingaround. 66Psst1Comeon,wakeup!'' Huh？Sincewhen−oh､Heknewthatvoiceandreluctantlycrackedan eyelid. ‘℃harlie?'' G6Shh,keepitdown.ラヲ [TWWA] e.BodyofEvanReedfbund September22,2012 ［…］ Evansmother,TonyaReedsaidthelasttimeshesawEvan,hewas watchingcartoons・Shelatercalledouthisnametomakesurehewas stillthere,buthedidnotanswer.Mrs.Reedstatedthataslidingdoor wasunlockedandthathemayhavegoneoutthebackdoor [EC] fMr・Fellows:Quiet1Quiet!Quiet!…Abrahams. Abrahams:Here. Mr.Fellows:Boone Boone:Here. […］ Mr.Fellows:Livingstone Livingstone:Here.
40 Mr.Fellows [M] TakenoriTakahashi Latimer…Latimer？DanielLatimer？ Theymayalsobeusedtocheckwhethertheaddresseeisawake,conscious, allright,listening,etc. (17)ShotThatHitAssemblyman'sVehicleWasRandom,PoliceThink ［…］ cGIthoughtthebulletcamethroughtheseat,andhewassittingdirectly behindme,''Mr.Boylandsaid．G6SolpanickedI'mscreamingouthis name,tryingtoseeifhe'sokaヲツ [NYT] 3.6.Ⅲ00rControlFunction Stand-alonevocativescanbeusedtoperfbrmspeechactssuchasHoor claimingandHoorgantmg. (18)MR.WHITTINGTONMr.Chainnan CHAIRMANBRODD:Mr.Whittington. MR.WHITTINGTON:Imovethat...
3.7.DescriptiveorPredicativeFunction
SomevocativeshaveadescriptiveorpredicativefUnctioninthattheyindicate somepropertyoftheaddressee.Forexample,(19)predicatesthepropertyofbeing abastardtotheaddressee. (19)Youbastard!3.8.ExpressiveFunction
Vocativesmayexpresstheemotionalstate,orattitude,ofthespeaker (20)a.c6HelloBosc…Ithasbeenalongtime.''Theyoungladysmiledhappily andateartrickleddownthesideofherface. c6Bria…2''HisvoicewassoftbutSumrised.Themanleaptfbrwardand huggedhertightly,cryingashedidso [GC] b."Jack?''Thewannlookwasgone,replacedbyoneofconcem [TWWA] c."Saral''heyelped…lll [TWWA] d.ccThisisfbrme.''Charliepulledanothergifioutfiomunderthetree. Hetorethewrappingoffashetalked.@6Ihope…''hegaspedandthrew thepaperoverthepresent, 6GMoomm!'' [TWWA] vlnhlsmolheranoutragedlook Theemotionsofthespeakermaybeexpressedinvaryingdegreesoffbrce (21)"Where'sDaniel?'' Hestammeredoutthequestiontryingnottothinktheworst.Surely Momwouldn'tbeinthekitchenpreparingdinnerifDanielwasgonefbr good.Andhisbrotherwouldhavewaitedaroundtosaygoodbye.They werebloodbrothers.Danielwouldhaveinsistedonsayinggoodbye.The thoughthelpedCharliebreatheeasier. 66He'supstairsresting.Howwasyourfirstdayback廿omvacation?''42 TakenOriThkahashi Amazingly,hismothersoundednonnalalthoughhersmilewasn'tquite uptoherusualstandard. GGWhocareshowmydaywas?''Charlieburstout.Didtheythinkhewas hveyearsoldanddidn，tunderstandwhatwasgomgon？nwasannoying． cGWhat'shappeningwithDaniel?''hedemanded..cWhatdoesBallard want?DoeshewanttotakeDanielwithhim?'' 6GCharlie1''Momseemedshockedbyhisoutburst.｡GFirstofallit'sMister orDr.Ballardtoyou.'' HegrittedhisteethwhileDaniel'swordsechoedinhismemory.My grandpanevermademeanythingspecial.Grandfatherornot,Ballard didn'tdeserveatitle.Charlieknewbetterthantosaythattohismother. Whenhedidn'timmediatelyanswerMomfbldedherarmsacrossher chestandlookedstern,Wasshekidding？Witheverythinggoingonshe wasworriedabouthismanners？Maybehisparentsdidn，tgraspthe seriousnessofitall.Theyprobablydidn'tknowofBallard'slessthan stellarperfbrmanceasagrandfather.FromthelookonMom'sfacehe decidedhe'dbetterplayalonginordertogetsomemuchneededintel. 66WhatdoesMr・BallardwantwithDaniel?'' Hetriedtokeepthesarcasmoutofhisvoicebuthismomwasfiowning soalittlemusthavecreptin.Thankfillly,shechosetoignoreitand answerhisquestion. CGAsfarasweknow,he'sheretovisitDaniel.''Shestoodupfromthe tableandheadedtothesinkandbeganunwrappingthepiecesofchicken she'dbeenthawing. cGDoeshewanttotakeDanielwithhim?''Charlietrailedafierher. Ifhisparentsknewsomething,theyneededtoshareit.Hewasascloseto Danielastheywereandifsomethingbadwasgoingtohappenheneeded
tobeprepared.Hewastwelve,nottwo. 66He'svisitingDaniel,Charlie・That'sallweknow.''Momtumedaround tofacehhn.@GWe'vemVitedhimoverfbrdinnertomght,maybewe'llfind outmorethen.，， c6Dinner?''Charliewasincredulous.@6HemightbeheretotakeDaniel awayandwe，regoingtogivehimdinner？Thisismessedup．I'mgoing togotalktoDaniel.'' 66CharlesMichaelO'Neill!'' Charlie廿oze.Hecouldn'trememberthelasttimehe'dheardhismother usethattonewithhim.Dad,yeah,moretimesthanhecaredtoremember, butthatangry,authoritativevoicewasararityfromMom. [TWWA] In(21)46CharlesMichaelO'Neill!"expressesastrongeremotionorfeelingthan C6Charlie!''
3.9.MultifUnctionality
Itisnotuncommonfbrthesamevocativetoperfbnnmorethanonefimction atonce.Forexample,｡｡Youbastard!''canperfbnnthefilnctionofexpressinganger (expressivefimction),combinedwiththatofcharacterizingtheaddresseeasa bastard(descriptivefilnction).(Infact,thedescriptive/predicativefimctionandthe expressivefilnctionareofiendifferentsidesofthesamecoin.)Thesamesortof multifilnctionalityappliesto"CharlesMichaelO'Neill!"in(21).Thisvocativeis utteredmahtofangerandmadesperateattempttopreventordetertheaddressee 廿omG6goingtogotalktoDaniel.''Inotherwords,inusingthisvocativetenn,the speaker(themother)isperfbnningtwoillocutionaryactssimultaneously,namely expressiveanddirectiveacts.44 THkenoriTBkahashi 4.ConClusion Thispaperhasexaminedstand-alonevocativesintennsoftheirpragmatic fimctions.Theexamplesprovidedherehaveshownthatthefbllowingspeech actscanbeperfbrmed(orintended)bythespeakerthroughtheuseofstand-alonevocatives:1)attractingtheaddressee'sattentiontothespeaker,2)alerting theaddressee'sattentiontotheensuingspeechactortoanextra-linguisticoUect, event,stateofaffairs,etc.,3)gettingtheaddresseetodoornottodosomething,4) confrmmgtheaddressee'sidemity,presence,attendance,etc.,orcheckingwhether theaddresseeisawake,conscious,allright,listening,etc.,5)claimingorgranting theHoor,6)predicatingsomepropertytotheaddressee,and7)expressingthe emotionorattimdeofthespeaker. Thepaperhasalsopointedtothefactthatmorethanoneillocutionaryactcan besimultaneouslyperfbnnedbytheutteranceofasinglestand-alonevocative. Stand-alonevocativesappeartobemore､6versatile''thanisgenerally acknowledged,anditcanbeassumedthattheyhavestillotherfilnctionsin additiontothoselistedabove.Forexample,peoplemightcallorsaysomeone's nametryingtofYndwherehe/sheis;tomakehim/herknowwheretheyare;to makeknownhis/hername,arrival,etc.,toothersinthediscoursescene;orto simplyshowthattheyhavenoticedorareawareofhis/herpresence.Orpeople maycheersomeone'snametoshowtheirsupport.Moreextensivedatacollection andanalysiswillleadtoabetterunderstandingofthefilnctionsofstand-alone vocatives.
FOOTNOTES
'Examplesthatarenotmarkedfbrsourcehavebeenconstructedbythe
author.2
A
s
f
b
r
t
h
e
d
e
f
i
n
i
t
i
o
n
s
o
f
｡
6
i
l
l
o
c
u
t
i
o
n
a
r
y
p
o
m
t
'
'
a
n
d
6
6
i
l
l
o
c
u
t
i
o
n
a
r
y
f
b
r
c
e
,
'
'
I
relyonthedistinctionproposedbySearle.Anillocutionalypointisthespeaker's basicpurposemmakinganutterance,whileinocmionaryfbrceisdefinedmtenns ofGGthestrengthwithwhichtheillocutionarypointispresented"and"[i]llocutionary pointispartofbutnotthesameasillocutionaryfbrce"(Searlel979).Inother words,asVanderveken(1990)pointsout,"…therearemanydifferentfbrceswith thesameillocutionarypoint.Forexample,questions,commands,supplications, demands,requests,andordersarespeechactswiththesamedirectiveillocutionary pointbutdifferentillocutionaryfbrces.'，3
T
h
i
s
e
x
a
m
p
l
e
i
s
c
i
t
e
d
b
y
K
u
b
o
(
2
0
0
5
)
a
s
a
n
i
n
s
t
a
n
c
e
w
h
e
r
e
@
c
e
a
c
h
s
p
e
a
k
e
r
perfbnnsaperlocutionaryactof"soc/a加刀byperfbnninganillocutionaryacts ofcα/伽gtheotherbyhis/herfirstnamethatisamemberof加-gﾉ℃叩termsto expresshis/heremotiontoeachother.'' DATASOURCES [ACAYC]AsCheekyAsYouCan't・http://ascheekyasyoucant.blogspot. com/2008/12/hydrate-or-die-wallerman-falls.html(lastvisitedinNovember 2013) [AS]EminemandJay-ZBringinB.0.B,Dr.Dre,50CentandDraketoDetroit. "ceS/iow6/z.September3,2010,http://www.aceshowbiz.com/news/ view/00035196.html(lastvisitedinNovember2013) [ATS]Twain,Mark(1999)77724dVe""ｲresq/7b"7SqWyer.Scholasticlnc.46 TakenoriThkahashi 旧田nleBigmll.http://the-office.com/bedtme-story/bighill.htm(lastvisitedm November2013) [BS]Wesley,ValerieWilson(2008)QfB/ooJα"dSo"ow.･"乃加”αHとIy/e MWe".RandomHouseLLC. [CLH]Allenbaugh,Kay(1999)C"oco/q/e/braLove'･3"ｾα".･So"/-Sbo""g SIo"es/ﾙa/Ce/e〃are//TePOwe"QJLoye.Simon&Schusterlnc. [DF]DimonForever:LoveisRealChapter98.http://dimonfbrever.tumblr.com/ post/49386810891/Iove-is-real-98-dimon-fanfic(lastvisitedinNovember 2013) [DWCM]TheDiaryoftheWolfChildrenofMidnapore.http://www.midnapore. in/wolfchildren-ofmidnapore/wolfchildren-ofmidnapore9.html(lastvisited inNovember2013) [E]Edwards,Hailey(2013)Eveﾉ鍵加"eのα"g/"e'wq/.4skα"αﾉ.SamhainPublishing. [EC]BodyofEvanReedfbund.鋤α”"excoﾉ".September22,2012,http://www. examiner.com/article/body-ofevan-reed-fbund-l(lastvisitedinNovember 2013) [EP]777eE"g//"Pα"e"/[mm]・ScreenplaybyAnthonyMinghella. [FBORF]Fausel,DonaldF.(2010)F>℃〃β"〃O6edie"ce/oα此叩o"s/6/eFQM.･ 777eMｾ胸o"Q/qOα〃eQ"肋"c・iUniverse. [FBTC]Peterson,Sarahca(2010)Fγ℃"7Beﾙﾉ〃剛/sCﾙα".XlibrisComoration. [GC]Dodd,ChristopherS.(2010)77ieGo/舵〃C"℃/e,･剛eDqrA恥γ〃乃"ogy BookO"e.AuthorHouse. mHavenChapter6.http://Wwwanfiction.net/s/1667383/6/Haven(lastvisitedm November2013) [HF]Johnson,R.M.(2001)777e"と"油Fb〃ん.･4""01ﾉe/.SimonandSchuster. [HYEMML］HaveyouevermetMichaelLandon？http://landonlegacy､com／ FansWhoMetML.htm(lastvisitedinNovember2013)
[IR]Braude,StephenE(2003)加加o"αﾉRe碗α加s.･MeEW晩"cejbrLj/M/i" Deq/ﾉ1.Rowman&LittleneldPUblishers,hc. [K]Dewey,Laurel(2012)K加wj"g.TheAronica-MillerPublishingPrqject,LLC. [KCN]Madison,Shawntelle(2012)Kepr.･4Cove/ed"ove/.RandomHouseLLC. [KESHD]Hood,MarshaK.(2009)随伽/Eve"o"eS肋"〃""ﾉeqDoze"/Xlibris Corporation. [KSSST]Heam,Lafbadio(2006)Kwa/伽"･Sio"esα"JS/"diesq/S"α"geT77/"gs. StoneBridgePress. [LW]Taylor,Janelle(2003)Lαえo/α剛"伽ZebraBooks. [M]Mｾﾉoの[hlm].ScreenplaybyAlanPalker. [MG]TheMadnessofGarry.http://shadowedlove97・deviantart.com/art/The-Madness-ofLGarry-321004822(lastvisitedinNovember2013) [MH]Ment(2006)Mｾ"rα/〃ひ"se.･WieRomα〃のe"j"g.iUniverse. [MMAA]Amatobi,Christopher(2012)Mq"yMりo"sAgo加〃"cQ.Xlibris Corporation. [NYT]ShotThatHitAssemblyman'sVehicleWasRandom,PoliceThink.Wie NEw励湫刀"7es.Augustll,2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/12/ nyregion/boylands-suv-was-hit-by-random-shot-police-think,html？r=0(last visitedinNovember2013) [OCC]Aites,RichardW(2009)77ieO//C'℃eﾙCﾉ"℃"jc/es.iUniverse. [PK]APromseKept.http://Wwwfanfiction.net/s/6912634/1/A-Pro皿se-Kept(last visitedinNovember2013) [PT]Hinton,Lynne(2011)P/eTbw".HarperCollins. [RH]Trent,Brian(2005)Re"1e加加""gf切〕α"α.･4"ove/Q/""cie"/Emp/. iUnivers. [SD]SimpleDeal.http://www.wattpad.com/22973156-simple-deal-ajustin-bieber -fan-fiction-ten(lastvisitedmNovember2013)
48 ThkenoriTBkahashi [SF]SparksFly.http://Wwwanfiction.net/s/8314399/4/Sparks-Fly(lastvisitedm November2013) [SS]Juan'sSpankingStoriesBookIV:SpankedSchoolgirls.http://www.asstr. org/Haley_Brimley/guest6uan/IVc-bonnie_losesjner=pants.htm(lastvisited inNovember2013) [SW]SavedbytheWord.http://publishing.gc.adventist.org/files/pdfy LEMIssue677.pdf(lastvisitedinNovember2013) [T]Woods,Sherryl(2013)た"Zp/a伽".HarlequinMIRA. [TM]TbllMe.http://shinylouis.tumblr.com/post/33496203178/tell-me(lastvisited inNovember2013) [TS]Davidson,Carolyn(2012)777e姥"晩F･S"α"g".HarlequinMills&Boon. [TWWA]ThatWhichWeAre.http://jd-divas.com/darcy/thatwhichweare.shtml (lastvisitedinNovember2013) [U]Brody,Jessica(2013)U"だ脚e"76e花α.JessicaBrodyEntertainment,LLC. REFERFNCES AIston,WilliamP.(2000)"/oc"伽"α〃4asq"dSe"/e"ceMeα"加g,Cornell UniversityPress. Biber,Douglas,StigJohansson,GeoffreyLeech,SusanConradandEdward Finegan(1999)Lo"gwα〃Gγα加加αrqrSpoke"α”冊加e"助g/紬,Longman. Briggs,Richard(2001)"or亦加Ac伽".･Speec/IAα剛eo〃α"dB坊"cαノ I"/e切花/α"O",T&TClark. Dunkling,Leslie(1990)D/c伽"α〃Q′即"〃“α”た〃7sq/4敗加ss,Routledge. Hurfbrd,JamesR.(2012)777eOr/g加sq/G'α加加α『.･Lα"g"age肋//reL壇ﾙ/Q/ Evo/"加刀IZOxfbrdUniversityPress. Kubo,Susumu(2005)"PragmaticsofVocatives-ASpeechActTheoretic
AnalysisofVocatives,''Pmce〃加g3qj/ﾉ7e9"TCo"/bre"ceQrPα"-PqcI/ic "ssoc/a加刀Q/4〃"”〃"g"js"cs,332-344. Leech,Geoffiey(1999)@GTheDismbutionandFunctionofVOcativesinAmencan andBritishEnglishConversation,''Oz"Q/Co'抑'．α､S""jesj"Hひ"o""QfS"g ルルα"sso",ed.byHildeHasselgirdandSigneOkseiell,107-ll8,Rodopi. Lyons,John(1977)脆"7α""csI.CambridgeUniversityPress. Murphy,Br6naandFionaFaIT(2012)､"I'mhnegirl,andhowareyou?':TheUse ofVocativesinSpokenlrishEnglish,''NewPeW)ec"veso〃かむルE"g"s/7,ed. byBettinaMiggeandMaireNiChiosAin,203-224,JohnBenjamins. Quirk,Randolph,SidneyGreenbaum,GeoffreyLeechandJanSvartvik(1985)4 Cb'叩'で〃e"s/veGrα"""qrqj//ieE"g/MLα"g"age,Longman. Recanati,Fran9ois(1987)Mとα"加gα”ん'℃e,〃e片α9mα"csQ/.Pejjbrmα"ve Ur/eﾉ．α"ces,CambridgeUniversityPress. Searle,JohnR.(1979)."ATaxonomyoflllocutionaryActs,''EXpressio〃α” Mどα"/"g.･S/"dies/〃/ﾙe71/7eo"Q/"eecル血/s,byJohnR.Searle,1-29, CambridgeUniversityPress. Twitchell,DouglasP.andJayF.Nunamaker,Jr.(2004)"SpeechActProfiling: AProbabilisticMethodfbrAnalyzingPersistentConversationsandTheir Participantr.Pmcee戒"g3"/"e37/"Hqwα〃んjer"α"o"α/Co砿'℃"ceO" SWe"'此/e"ces,1-10,IEEEPress. Vanderveken,Daniel.(1990)"""加gα〃助“cﾉ7J4c/s肋加"e/.･乃加叩/esQr Lα"g"ageMe,CambridgeUniversityPress.
