Toward the Integration of Business Languages for Industrial Engineering Its Application to EAHMS (Ecological Approach to Human Machine Systems) Theory

ARTICLE

Toward

the Integration

of Business

Languages

for Industrial

Engineering

―Its Application

_{to EAHMS (Ecological Approach to Human}

Machine Systems)

Yoichi Masuzawa Chiba Institute of Technology, Japan

Abstract: As a base platform of Ecological Approach to Human Machine Systems (EAHMS), Structured Manuals Analysis and Design Method (SMAD) is a theory with technique for translating business languages (manuals: natural language) into modeling language (systems language) i.e. DFDs (Data Flow Diagrams), ERDs (Entity Relationship Diagrams) and Mini-specs (Miniature specifications) with its unique methodology of analysis and design. This paper successfully applied SMAD to Japanese business manuals in order to produce effective business simulation models. It is concluded that the SMAD approach to business simulation is promising to further enhance the EAHMS theory and practice for both American and Japanese companies.

Key word:EAHMS (Ecological Approach to Human Machine Systems), SMAD (Structure Manuals Analysis and Design), Natural Language Processing, Organizational Learning Theory

1. INTRODUCTION

SMAD structures business and management procedures, then verbalizes the procedures as business manuals (natural language) and finally converts the natural language into modeling (systems) language and vice versa. Moreover, a systems language can easily be translated into a computer language (JAVA or C Languages) through CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering) or UML (Unified Modeling Language) tools with a plug-in reverse engineering application. For verifying the semantic equivalence of between natural and systems language, SMAD theory utilizes such cognitive linguistics concepts as Case Theory, Construction Grammar and Role and Reference Grammar extensively.

First, this paper applied the SMAD application to the actual business and management. With SMAD algorithm, the natural language descriptions i.e., business manuals, company regulations, job descriptions and so on, were successfully converted into modeling language for systems analysis and simulator descriptions which was ready to be fed to those simulation tools for formulating systems dynamics. Second, this paper found that the structure of a

typical American business manual with its management systems is closely related to the structure of business simulation methods. Finally, this paper successfully applied SMAD to Japanese business manuals so that they can produce effective business simulation models.

This paper also found that SMAD and its results created conflicts and difficulties as well, because of the misunderstanding of computerization and tacit knowledge.

2 THE CONVERSION TECHNOLOGY-NATURAL LANGUAGE vs. MODELING

LANGUAGE-This chapter tries to establish a conversion theory from a natural language to a modeling language utilizing C.Fillmore's Case Theory.

A well-known conversion process is the process of conversion in general "machine translation," which is divided into three processes:analysis, transformation, and generation. This process can be applied to a Natural-Systems languages conversion process such as analysis process, structured inter-language process and systems language generation process.

To carry out the above steps, basic technologies have been invented. These are:structured inter-language, "modified" Case Theory

, and authentification. Before explaining these technologies, this paper will briefly discuss some of the basic ideas including Surface structure (Chomsky 1965:the sentence which is actually used. This paper defines it as a sentence with some redundant elements which can be deleted), Deep structure (Chomsky 1965:the underlying well-formed sentences), Transformation and generation (the structuring and refining of actual sentences

in order to acquire their deep structures and write them in the form of an inter-language called structured inter-language which contains sufficient elements for full semantic interpretation).

Afterwards. the deep structure stated in the inter-language is converted again into the surface structure in reverse in terms of the systems language.

The basic theory of analysis and conversion utilizing the structured inter-language is the modified Case Theory based on C.Fillmore's Case Theory (Fillmore 1966). The modified Case Theory especially focuses on Japanese sentence structures and "joshi (particles attached to nouns)" which indicate clearly case relationships between constituent arguments. As it is effectively applied to the Japanese natural language, this paper uses the Fillmore's original theory extensively.

Finally the entire theory is put together in the form of a computer software package named SMAD (Structured Manuals Analysis and Design). The software package was

successfully applied to Japanese enterprises' business procedures in terms of business manuals analysis and design. In addition to the analysis and generation process from natural language to systems language, this paper also discusses the reverse process. i.e., from systems language to natural language. And every natural language manual which is regenerated from a systems language is highly structured. The author calls the entire process manuals' life cycle. See Figure 1.

FIG.1 Manuals' Life Cycle

The manuals' life cycle is especially applied for confirming multicultural business procedures. Exchanging business procedures written in structured inter-languages both English and Japanese (deep structure) must be much more effective and precise than exchanging directly between the original natural language manuals (surface structure).

Followings are sample sentences (both natural and structured inter-language) and a systems language representation (DFD diagram) which is directly translated from the inter-language.

Natural language sentences (business manual):

1_0. Customer sends order to ordering dept., which prepares order acceptance memo to order acceptance memo

tile.

1_1. Customer sends order to ordering dept., which replies concerning order acceptance decision to customer. 1_2. Want information provides want slip for ordering dept.,

which replies concerning order acceptance decision to customer.

1_3. Commodity control clerk sends want slip to ordering dept., which changes want slip for want information. 1_4. Customer ledger provides customer information for

ordering clerk, who prepares sales voucher for shipping clerk.

1_5. Commodity ledger provides commodity information for ordering clerk, who prepares sales voucher for shipping clerk.

1_6. Order acceptance memo file provides order acceptance memo for ordering clerk, who prepares sales voucher for shipping clerk.

1_7. Order acceptance memo file provides order acceptance memo for ordering clerk, who preserves sales voucher for sales voucher stub file.

Structured inter-language:

1_0.:[customer]-order-(prepares order acceptance memol ordering dept.)-order acceptance memo-[order acceptance memo file]

(detailed language processing) Input sentence

Customer sends order to ordering dept., which prepares order acceptance memo to order acceptance memo file. Grammatical relation analysis

Customer (ACTOR1) sends (verbl) order (OBJECT1) to ordering dept (LOCATION1:TO).,

which (ACTOR2) prepares (verb2) order acceptance memo (OBJECT2)

to order acceptance memo file (LOCATION2:TO).

1_1.:[customer]-order-(replieslordering dept.)-order acceptance decision-[customer]

1_2.:[want information]-want slip-(replieslordering dept.)-order acceptance decision-[customer]

(want information:shortage information, want slip: notice of shortage)

1_3. _{:[commodity control clerk]-want slip-(changes|} ordering dept.)-want slip-[want information] 1_4.:[customer ledger]-customer information-(prepares

sales voucherl ordering clerk)-sales voucher-[shipping clerk]

1_5.:[commodity ledger]-commodity information-(prepares sales voucherl ordering clerk) -sales voucher -[shipping clerk]

1_6. _{:[order acceptance memo file]-order acceptance}

memo-(prepares sales voucherl ordering clerk)-sales voucher-[shipping clerk]

1_7.:[order acceptance memo file]-order acceptance memo-(preserves|ordering clerk)-sales voucher-[sales voucher stub file]

Systems language (DFD):

FIG.2 DFD

In natural language processing system like SMAD, maybe the most problematic aspect is the influence of context on language interpretation. Especially, it is often the case that elliptical fragments must be translated in full in the target language, i.e., systems language such as DFD, ERD etc. and hence must be recovered in the source language. With the concepts of traditional case grammar stated above (Fillmore 1966), Shank&Riesbeck (1981) asserted Conceptual Dependency (CD). SMAD also make the most of this idea of conceptual dependency in order to recover the elliptical part of the business manuals sentences.

In the CD semantic representation, verbs are described by semantic primitives (e.g. transfer (physical PTRANS or non-physical ATRANS), bought BOUGHT, etc.). Case relations with different nouns (that could be agents ACTOR, patient OBJECT, location FROM/TO etc.) are marked for the verbal primitives. The CD representations were used to choose word senses, and represents scripts or stereotypical sequence of actions.

In Schank's theory, a predetermined set of possible relations (conceptual rules) is used to predict conceptual items implicit in a sentence. The language analyzer makes use of skeletal semantic structures to guide the analysis. Thus Schank's algorithm analyzes the text directly into semantic structures called conceptual dependency networks which is utilized extensively in SMAD system. A sample process is represented blow:

SOURCE SENTENCES (A STORY):

JACK WENT TO THE STORE. HE GOT A KITE. HE WENT HOME.

CONVERSION INTO CD FORM (LISP)

(AUTOMATICALLY PROCESSED BY LISP PROGRAM) (PTRANS (ACTOR (PERSON (NAME (JACK)))) (OBJECT (PERSON (NAME (JACK))))(TO (STORE))) (ATRANS (OBJECT (KITE))(TO (PERSON))) (PTRANS (ACTOR (PERSON))(OBJECT (PERSON))

(TO (HOUSE)))

TRANSLATION INTO GRAPH PROGRAM

SYSTEMS LANGUAGE (ORIGINAL)

FIG3 DFD (ORIGINAL)

PREDICTION OF IMPLICIT ITEMS

(AUTOMATICALLY PROCESSED BY LISP PROGRAM)

((PTRANS (ACTOR (PERSON (NAME (JACK)))) (OBJECT (PERSON (NAME (JACK))))(TO (STORE))) (PTRANS (ACTOR (PERSON (NAME (JACK)))) (OBJECT (KITE))(TO (PERSON (NAME (JACK)))))

(ATRANS (ACTOR (STORE))(OBJECT (KITE)) (FROM (STORE))(TO (PERSON (NAME (JACK))))) (ATRANS (ACTOR (STORE))(OBJECT (RECEIPT)) (FROM (STORE))(TO (PERSON (NAME (JACK))))) (ATRANS (ACTOR (PERSON (NAME (JACK)))) (OBJECT (MONEY))(FROM (PERSON (NAME (JACK))))(TO (STORE)))

(PTRANS (ACTOR (PERSON (NAME (JACK)))) (OBJECT (PERSON (NAME (JACK))))(FROM (STORE))(TO (HOUSE)))

-GiST-($SHOPPING (SHOPPER (PERSON (NAME (JACK)))) (STORE (STORE))(BOUGHT (KITE))(ELSEWHERE (HOUSE))))

SYSTEMS LANGUAGE (IMPROVED)

FIG.4 DFD (IMPROVED)

APPLIED TO BUSINESS MANUAL SENTENCES (SAME SENTENCES AS ABOVE)

FIG. 6 DFD (IMPROVED)

3 CASE STUDY-EFFECT OF SMAD APPLICATION TO AMERICAN&JAPANESE COMPANIES

3.1 FINDINGS

The preceding chapters established a conversion theory between a natural language and a modeling (systems) language and vice versa. The viability of the theory has also been confirmed in the form of a computer software package as it has been tested and verified in the actual business world as stated above.

The results of SMAD application are discussed here from view points of two pairs of important business concepts, i.e., user and IT or IS (information systems) department, managers and clerks.

IT/IS departments in both America and Japan are definitely satisfied with the results of SMAD because of well structured systems documentation and improved understanding of the business process which has not been provided by users before. The natural and systems language documentation also expedite the simulation modeling, systems analysis and development procedures. Within the IT/IS departments, SMAD results have been effectively utilized for education for novices; since novices tend to pursue cutting edge IT know-how paying lesser attention to a user's business procedures (Masuzawa 2000). Managers' understanding of operation has also been considerably improved.

Overall, the exchange of business knowledge in both America and Japan for simulation from expert to novice, user to IT/IS department and managers' understanding of a clerk's job has been improved. This means knowledge on management side was successfully improved.

But from workers' viewpoint, things are much different. In America, there were no difficulties in applying SMAD to actual business processes, however, in Japan it caused considerable conflict among and between workers. (Applying SMAD to actual business process means preparing proper manuals which specify their business procedures. Japanese, however, had no manuals written in

natural language.) Especially in terms of a clerk's job whose work is reduced to machine operation, the application caused a loss of company-specific tacit knowledge.

At the same time, the minute definition of job procedures created conflicts among workers as well. Managers, moreover, have too much confidence in terms of

computerizing business processes not only for routine work but also for managers' work such as the decision making process.

3.2 MANAGEMENT (TRAINING) THEORY

The reason why Japanese have no manuals is often discussed in relation to Japanese business style, or Japanese tradition which tries not to teach "how-to" or does not

accept the verbalized way of thinking. Japanese employee training is strongly related to "norm-acquisition", i.e., not telling how to (skills) but teaching act standards (norms).

Thus a Japanese worker thinks of his senior colleague not as a trainer but a "teacher (mentor)"; job descriptions are thought of not as business manuals but as ethical codes.

Of course computerized business simulation or procedures cannot be accepted in this sense simply because

computers cannot provide any ethical or creative ideas. Therefore, in order to explain the difference between the Japanese sense of a teaching job (business procedures)

and the American counterparts, a well prepared definition of the term "teach" is indispensable.

To present the idea of teaching and telling, I. Scheffler introduces three pairs of schema which are (Scheffler 1960):

A.X tells Y that B.X teaches Y that C.X tells Y to D.X teaches Y to E.X tells Y how to F.X teaches Y how to

The implications are:

"To learn to be honest is to acquire a certain norm, a "pattern of action"•c

To teach someone that one ought to be honest thus involves not merely teaching him to be honest (even for the active interpretation), but also trying to have him acquire the benefit that one ought to be honest, (to acquire it within the restrictions of manner appropriate to teaching and discussed earlier). B statements may thus be said, in contrast to D statements, never to refer to the acquisition of norms solely, but also to some belief in the norm, some sort of intellectual acknowledgment of its authority. (Scheffler 1960)"

The difference between skills and norm-acquisition are clarified in the same book as following:

"F and D are distinct

, we have said. For convenience, we may say (roughly) that D is

concerned with norms and norm-acquisition, while F is concerned rather with skills and skill acquisition. (Scheffler 1960)"

Using the definition and its implications, we could easily understand the deep meaning of Japanese job training which is performed without using written documents.

The Japanese training system is supposed to be an example of norm-acquisition or "teach Y to•c" style of teaching. This style of teaching and its method cannot easily be documented or verbalized. On the contrary, the American skill-oriented way might prefer "teach Y how to•c" method which can be written down logically, and therefore, easily simulated or computerized.

Above discussion can be summarized as following:

Table 1. Training/Language Summary

3.4 ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING THEORY 3.4.1 American Organizational Learning Theory In America, many well-established theories have been issued in terms of organizational learning. Following is a bibliographical outline of such theories. The basic principle of the American way of training and motivating workers is convincing them that they are "Artists" not "Clerks." This is the reason why it is important to acquire deep understanding of tacit knowledge in order to bridge Art, Science and Business training.

I. Scheffler issues many influential works from stand points of Philosophy and Education as follows:

Four Languages of Education(1987):which stresses the importance of illogical but Pedagogical and Symbolic Language or metaphor. This means training cannot be performed structured way or logically. For example, opera singers often teach their pupils saying:"sing from the top of your head." Thus they are not teaching theory but teaching skills. Exactly the same way should be used for training novices. Not a structured manual but a person-to-person discipline with metaphors is needed.

Basic mathematical skills(1976):Skills are capability of keeping performance while comprehension creates valuable products. Pupils (novices) are supposed to be a creator, not merely a performer. Thus they are Artists.

In Praise of the Cognitive emotions(1977):the growth of cognition is inseparable from emotions, i.e., joy of surprise and joy of verification.

M. Polanyi is the first advocate of the importance of "tacit knowledge.:In "Tacit Dimension(1967)" he asserts that "We know more than we can tell." Skill is a process to sense parts and organizing (integrating) parts into a whole so that parts can be a coherent object. This implies that we can teach and being taught only "parts" of the whole knowledge and we have to put together. In other words, the art of teaching is to know how to show the "parts" and their connections to the novice.

V.Howard tried to combine tacit knowledge with Education, especially Music Education. In "A fresh look at Art education(1992)" he asserts that it is unproductive to systematically teach intuition regarding music and you have to feel and sense in a tacit dimension.

A. Schon from Management Science (organizational learning) point of view, issues many books in which he focused on the fact that "learning-oriented, free and informed workers' participation," i.e., "reflective" way is much more effective and productive over "defensive, non-informed" workers' operation.

3.4.2 Japanese Organizational Learning Theory Basing on Zen and Confucianism, Japanese workers are group-oriented in nature. This has been realized as famous Total Quality Control, Kaizen and Kanban-System, which are developed through group meetings and activity. Once or

twice a week, the workers and management get together to discuss customer complaints, customer satisfaction, noticeable knowledge for improving their procedure and great ideas for promoting sales. The tacit knowledge as well is based on Zen Buddhism. For example, the spirit of Zen is well incorporated in noh play (Japanese traditional highly stylized theater play) with its philosophy of "no action." Spectators, with vivid imagination, saw greater artistry in this restraint.

The Ammokuchi theory, the most influential tacit knowledge theory in Japan, with its Knowledge Management applications, is strongly related to the Japanese groupism. Contrarily to the American theories, I.Nonaka asserts tacit knowledge can systematically be identified. Moreover, I.Nonaka stresses the importance of interchanging and converting tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge and vice versa. In his paper "The knowledge Creating Company (Harvard Business Review)" he explains the tacit knowledge standardization as follows:

First she learns the tacit secrets-Next she translates the secrets into explicit knowledge that she can communicate to her team members-The team then standardize this (tacit) knowledge, putting in together into a manual or workbook and embodying it in a product. Finally team member-enrich the tacit (data) base-(Nonaka 1991 p.30)

His interpretation of tacit knowledge theory is also unique and practically simplified. For example, I. Nonaka tries to translate "internalization" process as follows (Nonaka 1991 p.29). This is far from original Polanyi's indwelling

(awareness of the joint meaning of particulars in the whole). From explicit to tacit. What's more, as new explicit knowledge is shared throughout an organization, other employees begin to internalize it-that is, they use it to broaden, extend, and reframe their own tacit knowledge.

Here are some comments of American businessmen and employee concerning above tacit knowledge

standardization:

1 "Tacit Knowledge" can not be directly taught. Knowledge that an employee has is somewhat infinite and undefined to the point of being able to quantify, into a system.

2 Employee's have many different thoughts, feeling, impressions, drivers, motivations, and more. What "makes up" a human are many intricate factors.

Japanese management, on the other hand, thinks the cases inspire the Japanese management and workers to use their imagination. Also. Japanese managers think that the Nonaka's method for identifying tacit knowledge is straightforward. The authors, however, think that the

terminology of "tacit knowledge" is rather weak or contradictory. simply because knowledge should be explicated. In that sense "ammokuchi/tacit knowledge" can correctly be translated as "tacit skill." In contrast. American managers generally would not like to apply both American and Japanese organizational learning theories. Table3. Organizational learning theory

4. CONCLUSION

The viability of the EAHMS&SMAD theory has been confirmed in the form of a computer software package as it has been tested and verified in the actual business world . Thus the SMAD theory and system established a process for Japanese companies to acquire some "explicit" knowledge

in terms of business procedures. SMAD and its results, however, have created conflicts and difficulties as well, because of the misunderstanding of computerization and tacit knowledge. The conflict and difficulties can be solved by bridging American and Japanese working process basing on organizational learning theory. It is concluded that the SMAD approach to business simulation is promising to further enhance the EAHMS theory and practice for both American and Japanese companies.

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