思想史研究会
John Steinbeck の The Grapes of Wrath に見られる 言語思想史的発話の重複と脱落の諸相
後 藤 弘 樹
物語の中で登場人物がそれぞれ個々に密かに抱く思考は意識的,無意識的とに拘らず,
ここ一番という肝心な所では常に聴者(読者)に的確,明瞭,簡潔に力強く訴えたいとい う切なる願いが一番強く働く。その為,一方では登場人物の苦しい心の葛藤の様を赤裸々 に描き出すために,或いは聴者(読者)に作中人物の微妙な心の揺れ動く様を力強く印象 づけたいが為に,文法的には全く不必要と思われる語句を重複してみたり,また一方では 文書構成上当然あるべき文言を大胆に省略したりして,その折々の意識の中に生じた微妙 な思考の変化や流れを発話という表現形態の上に描きだしている。ここで言う表現形態と は悲しみ,慈しみ,喜び,苦しみ,憎悪,罪悪感などが大なり小なり程度の差こそあれ,
その折々に自然と胸の内からこみ上げてくる強い押さえ難い複雑な感情を文字の上に書き 表した表現方法である。特に,読者に誤解なく理解されていると思われる時には,思い切 って重複するような文言を繰り返すことは極力避けて,むしろ発話の短縮化を図り,それ によって発話そのものが凝縮した引き締まった感じを引き出させる効果がある。 所謂こ の単純化こそが特にアメリカ英語では好まれる。逆にくどいようでもどうしても力説して おきたい部分には重複表現の労を惜しまないことが読者との距離を縮め,コミュニケーシ ョンを効果的にはかる上で最も大切なことである。
本稿では作品の中で展開していく発話の省力化と語句の重複化という相反する表現形態 に注目して本作品の中に表れている言語事象を文法的な観点から検証していくことにする。
1 .は じ め に
本作品は1962年にノーベル文学賞を受賞したスタインベック(John Steinbeck, 1902-68)
の最高傑作で,1930年代のオクラホマ州を舞台に自然の猛威と相次ぐ大不況に翻弄され,土 地を追われ,生きるために職を求めてやむなく故郷を捨てて,彼ら貧農の理想郷であるカリ フォルニアの地を目指して苦難の放浪の旅を続けるジュード一家に,厳しい自然の環境の中 で,行く先々で彼らを待ち受け,次から次と容赦なく襲いかかる 有形無形の難題と過酷な
運命の試練を克明に描いている社会派小説である。本作品に臨場感溢れる雰囲気を醸し出す 上で一層効果的なのは,登場人物達の話す言葉のお国訛(俗語・方言)で,それについて作 者,John Steinbeck は作品の中で次のように述べている。
“We’ re Joads,”said Pa. “We come from right near Sallisaw.” “Well, we’re proud to meet you folks,” said Ivy Wilson, “Sairy, there is Joads.”“I knowed you wasn’t Oklahomy Folks. You talk queer kinds ― that ain’t no blame, you understan’.”
“Ever’body says words different,” said Ivy. “Arkansas folks says ‘em different, and Oklahomy folks says ‘em different . And we seen a lady from Massachusetts, an’ she said ‘m differentest of all. Could’ hardly make out what she was sayin’.”
―John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath.
言葉は,心穏やかなる時も,すさんでいる時も話し手の微妙な感情の起伏を如実に映し出 す鏡のような表現道具である。怒り,悲しみ,喜びなどの感情の高まりやその時々の激しい 憤懣やるかたない私情を絡めた心の起伏は言葉使いにも自ずと現れるものである。作者が作 品の中で感情のおもむくままに登場人物達にその土地土地に根付いた俗語・方言をふんだん に交えて図らずも語らせる談話の中で,臨場感あふれる雰囲気を余すところなく醸し出して いる場面に現れる情緒的色合いの濃い表現語法は,取りわけ,特に不条理な社会のしがらみ に縛られ,翻弄され,積もり積もった鬱積した激しい不満で押しつぶされそうになる惨めな 純朴な貧農達の心の葛藤の様相がとっさに口をついて出る発話には聴者を威圧する力強さと 迫力があり, 時として緊張感に満ち溢れ,文章構造も文法的な枠組みからはみ出して容易に 説明がつかないこともあり得る。
それが特に作中の登場人物が十分な学校教育も受けていない無学無才の人となれば,当然 のことながら彼らの発する言葉使いもなおさら地域方言や俗語がふんだんに入り混じって,
聴く人によってはまるで異言語の世界にいるようにすら感じ取られることもあり,往々にし て文法的枠組みを逸脱した発話となるケースが多分にあり得るのも紛れもない事実である。
そこで作品中に現れた登場人物達の発話(utterance)を文法的な観点から取り上げて,話 の内容や筋から聴者(読者)には十分理解してもらえていると思われる部分は,文法的に当 然あるべきと思われる語句を大胆に割愛したり,あるいは逆に,聴者(読者)の理解度が今 ひとつ心もとないと内心危惧される恐れがあるように思われる場合には,どうしても心理的 に言わなくてもいいと思われるようなことでも敢えて繰り返し述べたりする,所謂このなん ら飾り気のないごく素朴な一般庶民の自然な日常の発話の有り体を,作品中に用いられた文 例を通して検証していくことにする。
2 .主語の重複
本稿で取り上げる Common Speech といわゆる correct American の相違は特に動詞と代 名詞に於いて顕著であるという H. L. Mencken(1880-1956)の見解に従って,本稿の論を進 めていくことにする。先ず最初に俗語・方言の中で,H. L. Mencken がいう最も奇異なる言 語事象は主語を指す代名詞と動詞からなる文である。
The chief grammatical peculiarities of vulgar American lie, as Charters shows, among the verbs and pronouns. The nouns in common use, in the main, are quite sound in form. Very often, of course, they do not belong to the vocabulary of English, but they at least belong to the vocabulary of Americans: the proletariat, setting aside transient slang, calls things by their proper names, and pronounces those names more or less correctly. The adjectives, too, are treated rather politely, and the adverbs, though commonly transformed into the forms of their corresponding adjectives, are not further mutilated. But the verbs and pronouns undergo changes which set off the common speech very sharply from both correct English and correct American.
―H. L. Mencken, The American Language, p. 427.
ここでいう主語の重複とは,コミュニケーションの中で,即ち,会話のやり取りの中で,
いわんとする主語である名詞とその名詞を指す同格の代名詞を重ねて用いる用法で一種の強 調語法と解することが出来る。一見くどいともとられ,文法的にも不必要と思われる所もあ るが,心理的に話し手の側で言葉の表現や意図する筋や内容が聞き手に明確,的確に伝えて おきたいとか,誤解なく聞きとってもらいたいという話者の切なる心理的な思いが,無意識 のうちに強く働いて,つい過剰と思われるほど強く念を押すように,例えていうならば,さ ながらしつこく駄目押しするような形で重複して述べる表現形態である。従って,主語であ る名詞とそれを指す代名詞とが並列された二重主語(double subject)が,別名,余剰とか 文冗語句(Redundance とか Redundancy)といわれている。本稿では括弧内の太字を指す。
因みに,古くはこの手法がアメリカを代表するユーモア作家として名高い Mark Twain の 作品の中で幅広く用いられている。Ernest Hemingway(1899-1961)は「全ての現代アメリ カ文学はマーク・トウェイン,本名 Samuel Langhorne Clemens(1835-1910)が書いた小 説の主人公,『ハックルベリー・フィンの冒険』という一冊の本からきている」,と称して絶 賛している。 参考までに本稿と少なからず密接な関わりがあるのでその件の部分を少し引
用しておく。
All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn. If you read it you must stop where the Nigger Jim is stolen from the boys. That is the real end. The rest is just cheating. But it’s the best book we’ve had. All American writting comes from that. There was nothing before. There has been nothing as good since.
―Ernest Hemingway, Green Hills of Africa.
2.1 添加文の前置(前方照応反復)
ある語を繰り返し強調するために前位に置くことを前方照応反復(Anaphoric Repeti
tion),後方に置くことを後方照応(Cataphoric)という。
By a stylistic trick, which for more than a century has been gaining ground in literature, a word is repeated and for emphasis given frontposition.
―Otto Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, VII. 2. 37.
従って,参考までに Mark Twain の代表作である『トム・ソーヤの冒険』,『ハックルベ リー・フィンの冒険』,『ミシシッピー川の生活』などの彼の代表作に随所に見られる,所謂 この二重主語(double subject)の文例を先ずは例として挙げておく。本稿では太字の箇所 を指す。
“Well, Tom Sawyer he licked me once.”
―Mark Twain, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
“Then Mrs. Harper she began to cry, and said Joe was just the same, and she wished she hadn’t whipped him for taking cream when she’d throwed it out her
own self ―” ―Ibid.
You see a pirate don’t have to do anything, Joe, when he’s ashore, but a hermit he has to be praying considerable, and then he don’t have any fun, anyway, all
by himself that way. ―Ibid.
“I was a-stannin’ heah, an’ de dog was a-stannin’ heah; de dog he went for de shell, gwine to pick a fuss wid it; but . . . ” ―Id., Life on the Mississippi.
“Yes, sir, it’s as true as the world; Pap he says―” ―Ibid.
Well, Judge Thatcher he took it and put it out at interest, and it fetched us a dollar a day apiece all the year round―more than a body could tell what to do with.
―Id., The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
The judge’s wife she kissed it. ―Ibid.
Then in about two seconds we heard a whack, and the dog he finished up with a most amazing howl or two, and then everything was dead still, and the parson begun his solemn talk where he left off. ―Ibid.
次に John Steinbeck の The Grapes of Wrath で用いられている主な用例を挙げると,
Or an owner with fifty thousand acres, he isn’t like a man either.
―John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath.
Wink, he says his house is at stud, an’ if we’ll bring our’n over an’ breed ‘em we’ll maybe get a litter of crap houses. ―Ibid.
Uncle John, he had a young wife. ―Ibid.
Say, Pa, he give me twenty dollars to hand you. ―Ibid.
That ain’t so, ‘cause Pa, he’s foun’ lots a gold an’ he tol’ me how to look. ―Ibid.
Ol’ Fairfiel’, he went into San Francisco to the bars, an’ he got him three
hundred stew bums. ―Ibid.
“Me an’ Winfiel’,”she said; and then, treacherously, “Winfiel’,he bust a toilet.”
―Ibid.
Well, my woman she could raise a little truck an’ a couple pigs an’ some chikens
―Ibid.
But your ma and your pa, they’ll get in trouble. ―Ibid.
又次例のように前置した長い語句を指す人称代名詞(personal pronoun)からなる文例も ある。
All them storekeepers and legioners an’ people like that, they get drillin’ an’
yellin’, ‘Red !’ ―Ibid.
2.2 添加文の後置(後方照応)
When it gets cool, take the rack outa the oven. ―Ibid.
“Why not? They’re pretty nice, them schools.” ―Ibid.
On her mattress, away from the fire, Granma whimpered softly like a puppy.
―Ibid.
3 .脱落(別名,短縮,省略)
清水護編『英文法辞典』,244-5頁に「文が形態上完全であるためには必要であるが,欠け ていても意味の理解にさしつかえない部分を省略することをいうと,述べられている。
Ellipse ともいう……省略された部分は文から容易に補いうるものでなければならない。
……省略は表現が簡潔であるために,特に日常の談話に用いられることが多い。」と的確に 記述している。また市川三喜編『英語学辞典』,341頁には 「形態上完全な文としては必要 であるが,意義上はこれを欠いても差し仕えない場合の短縮を指す。文脈・経験または一般 知識により聴者が,直ちにしかも容易に省略部分を補充し得る場合に限る。」と,述べている。
因みに,例として清水護編『英文法辞典』,245ページに挙げられた有名な脱落例を,先ずは 参考までに引用する。括弧内の太字は脱落した語を示す。
To err is human, to forgive(is)divine.
(あやまつは人の常,許すは神) ―Alexander Pope, An Essay on Criticism.
(Depart)Hence, loathed me lancholy!
(去れ,いとわしい憂鬱よ!) ―John Milton, L’Allegro.
3.1 主語の脱落
脱落で最も一般的なのは主語の脱落である。「脱落(省略)は表現が簡潔であるためにか えって文意が強調される」と,市川三喜編『英語学辞典』,341頁に述べられている。従って,
会話の流れが引き締まって力強さを感じさせ,生き生きとして簡潔でスピーディーで話や表 現のテンポが良くなるという観点から発話そのものに,時には大胆とも思われるような脱落
(省略)が見られることがある。即ち,口語や俗語・方言では聞き手に意図する話の内容や 筋が十分に理解してもらえていると思われるような場合や場面ではしばしばその主語を指す ものが脱落することが多い。特に口語や俗語・方言では代名詞主語の頭部省略語法
(presiopesis) はつきものであると, Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) が A Modern English Grammar, III, p. 225で述べていて,この表現語法は既に中世のエリザベス朝時代(1558-
1603)の英語からあり,特にアメリカ英語の口語・俗語方言にはよく見られる特徴であると 記述している。
Very often the subject falls out by what I have ventured to call prosiopesis:
the speaker begins to articulate, or thinks he begins to articulate, but produces no audible sound till one or two syllables after the beginning of what he intended to say. Not infrequently such clipped utterances become set phrases, in which no one misses anything. Thus I is left out in Thank you and Pray or Pray you, . . .
―Otto Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, III. p. 225.
発話の中で脱落が表れるのはあくまでも聞き手に話の中で,それとなく言わんとすること がはっきりとわかっていて,誤解が生じることはまずないと思われるような場合や場面であ る。 括弧内の太字は省略されたとおぼしき語や語句を筆者が敢えて書き入れてみたもので ある。例を挙げると,
“. . .(I)Suppose she wore her brains out on the trip.”
―John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath.
“Nooo,(I)can’t say as I felt anything.” ―Ibid.
(I)Done it ever’ time. ―Ibid.
And(I)used to get an irrigation ditch so squirmin’ full of repented sinners(that)
half of ‘em like to drowned. ―Ibid.
“(I)Got to make a run to Tulsa, an’ I never get back soon as I think.”
“(I)Sure have, ”said the hitchhiker. ―Ibid.
Joad thought about it. “Nooo,(I)can’t say as I felt anything” ―Ibid.
(My)Name’s Joad, Tom Joad. ―Ibid.
(You)Jus’ stood there like a hammered sheep ―Ibid.
(He)Looked fine then. ―Ibid.
(He)Don’t know his ass from a hole in the ground. ―Ibid.
(He)Said it give him a feelin’ that forty was forty. ―Ibid.
“. . .(He) Come abullin’ after my sister Rosasharn when he was a little fella.
No, I liked Herb.” ―Ibid.
Noaf said, “Prob’ly (it) wouldn’t hurt that meat to git her right down in salt.
Cut her up, she’d cool quicker anyways.” . ―Ibid.
“Sure (it) is loose,”he said, and he put it in gear and pulled away down the
higway. ―Ibid.
(It)Had a tree an’ shiny stuff looks like snow. ―Ibid.
“(It)Seems to me there’s lots wrong,”said Casy. ―Ibid.
(It)Seems like maybe there ain’t any neighbors. ―Ibid.
“(It) Looks easy, jus’ settin’ here till you put in your eight or maybe your ten
or fourteen hours. . . ” ―Ibid.
“. . .(It)Kind of gives a guy a little rest.” ―Ibid.
(It) ’Minds me of a story they tell about Willy Feeley when he was a young
fella. ―Ibid.
Noah said, “Prob’bly (it) wouldn’t hurt that meat to git her right down in salt.
Cut her up, she ‘d cool quicker anyways.” ―Ibid.
Tom said, “Prayer never brought in no sidemeat. (It) Takes a shoat to bring
in pork.” ―Ibid.
“Sure (it) is loose,”he said, and he put it in gear and pulled away down the
highway. ―Ibid.
(They)Can’t throw us in jail ―why, it scares ‘em . ―Ibid.
“. . . (They) Figger maybe if we can gove’n ourselves, maybe we’ll do other
things.” ―Ibid.
“(They)Surely seem to live there,”Joad agreed. ―Ibid.
3.2 主語+動詞(be 動詞,助動詞を含む)の脱落
(The truck moved) Up the long slope, winding and twisting through dead country, burned white and gray and no hint of life in it. ―Ibid.
“Whatcha(What do you)want?” ―Ibid.
(We’ve)Blowed tube an’’ casing all to hell. ―Ibid.
(Preaching is)Doin’ good to a fella that’s down an’ can’t smack ya in the puss
for it. ―Ibid.
“(I)Ain’t goin’ go. Jus’ tar’d.(I’m)Goin’ res’ ri’ here. Ri’ here. ”
(You’re) Buying a plow to plow your own children under, buying the arms and spirits that might have saved you. ―Ibid.
(I’ve)Got a Lincoln ’24. ―Ibid.
“How do(you do)?,” they said. ―Ibid.
3.3 名詞の脱落
She was in that Warner(Brothers)picture. ―Ibid.
Fust I was gonna go in(town)an’ kill a whole flock a people. ―Ibid.
And the great owners, who must lose their land in an upheaval, the great owners with access to history, with eyes to read history and(eyes)to know the great fact: when property accumulates in too few hands it is taken away. ―Ibid.
3.4 “be” 動詞(is, am, are, was, were, being)の脱落
To California or any place ―every one(is)a drum major leading a parade of
hurts, marching with our bitterness. ―Ibid.
“(Is)That you, Tom?” ―Ibid.
66(is)across the Panhandle of Texas. ―Ibid.
“She(is)sassy,”he said. ―Ibid.
“Well, look. If we got to catch him an’ tie him down, we(are)li’ble to hurt him, an’ he’ll git so mad he’ll hurt himself. Now we can’t argue with him. If we could get him drunk it’d be all right. You got any whisky.” ―Ibid.
Uncle John turned his head. “Who(are)you?” ―Ibid.
. . . What(are)they doin’ there?” ―Ibid.
Where(are)you from? ―Ibid.
Ya(are)full a crap. ―Ibid.
How soon(are)you gonna be back by? ―Ibid.
“Croppers(are)going fast now,”he said. ―Ibid.
Cats(are)all over hell now. ―Ibid
Bearings(are)shot. ―Ibid.
Little boils, like,(are)comin’ out, an’ they can’t run aroun’. ―Ibid.
“Nearly a hundred people(are)on the road for your three dollars a day.”
―Ibid.
Clarksville and Ozark and Van Buren and Fort Smith(are)on 64,and there’s
an end of Arkansas. ―Ibid.
“Nearly a hundred people(are)on the road for your three dollars. Where will
we go?” ―Ibid.
On the wellcap the bolts that had held the pump stuck up, their threads(being)
rusty and the nuts(being)gone. ―Ibid.
Only it ain’t like(being)scared so much. ―Ibid.
. . . and all waiting for animals and for the wind, for a man’s trouser cuff or the hem of a woman’s skirt,(being)all passive but armed with appliances of activity, still, but each possessed of the anlage of movement. ―Ibid.
Now the going was easy, and all the legs worked, and the shell (was) boosted
along, waggling from side to side. ―Ibid.
His cheeks were brown and shiny and hairless and his mouth (was) full
― humorous or sensual. ―Ibid.
On the wall(was)a picture of an Inian girl in color, labeled Red Wing. ―Ibid.
One of our folks(was)in Revolution, an’ they was lots of our folks in the Civil
Warboth sides. ―Ibid.
His cheeks were brown and shiny and hairless and his mouth (was) full
― humorous or sensual. ―Ibid.
Every night a world(was)created, complete with furniture ― friends made and enemies established; a world complete with braggarts and with cowards, with quiet men, with humble men, with kindly men. ―Ibid.
Now the going was easy, and all the legs worked, and the shell (was)
boosted along,waggling from side to side. ―Ibid.
He was watchful and(was)ringed with trouble. ―Ibid.
A guitar(was)unwrapped from a blanket and tuned ―and the songs, which were all of the people, were sung in the nights. ―Ibid.
There in the door ― our children(were)born here. ―Ibid.
Two rangy shepherd dogs trotted up pleasantly, untill they caught the scent of strangers, and then they backed cautiously away, watchful, their tails moving slowly and tentatively in the air, but their yes and noses (were) quick for animosity
or danger. ―Ibid.
His cheeks were brown and shiny and hairless and his mouth (were) full
― humorous or sensual. ―Ibid.
In The Yowns, on the edges of the towns, in fields, in vacant lots, (were) the
usedcar yards, the wreckers’ yards, the garages with blazoned signs―Used
Cars, Good Used Cars. ―Ibid.
And in California the roads (were) full of frantic people running like ants to
pull, to push, to lift, to work. ―Ibid.
3.5 動詞,助動詞(“did, has, have, had, ‘ll”)の脱落
We’ll get our guns, like grampa(did)when the Indians came. ―Ibid.
Here I(have)got the sperit sometimes an’ nothin’ to preach about. ―Ibid.
I(have)seen pitchers once says a desert ―Ibid.
High compression (has) got lots a snap for a while, but the metal ain’t made
that’ll hold it for long. ―Ibid.
“And that reminds me,”the driver said, “you (had) better get out soon. I’m going through the door yard after dinner.” ―Ibid.
I(‘ll)give her a try. ―Ibid.
An’ I(‘ll)get me a little ol’ cutdown Ford. ―Ibid.
“Well, I(‘ll)get off there. Sure, I know you’re wettin’ your pants to know what I done. I ain’t a guy to let you down.” ―Ibid.
4 .完了助動詞 “have” の脱落
4.1 have の脱落アメリカ英語の俗語・方言では完了助動詞の “have” が脱落することが多い。この言語事象を H. L. Mencken, The American Language, Supplement II, p. 394 によれ ば “vulgar American”
の特徴だと述べている。
“I (have) seen him about three months ago. He had an operation. Cut somepin
out. I forgot what.” ―Ibid.
“Sure ― I (have) seen it. But sometimes a guy’ll be a good guy even if some rich bastard makes him carry a sticker.” ―Ibid.
I(have)seen him about three months ago. ―Ibid.
“Thought so. I(have)seen your hands. I (have)Been swingin’ a pick or an ax or a sledge. That shines up your hands. I notice all stuff like that. Take a pride in
it.” ―Ibid.
“Well, sure. But I want to get ahead anyway. I (have) been training my mind
for a hell of a long time.” ―Ibid.
“(Have you)Been doing a job?” ―Ibid.
“Thought so. I(have)seen your hands. I(have)been swingin’ a pick or an ax or a sledge. That shines up your hands. I notice all stuff like that. Take a pride in
it.” ―Ibid.
“I’ve knew guys that(have)done screwy things while they’re drivin’ trucks.”
―Ibid.
You didn’t give a damn when he said a big word ‘cause he (has) just done it
for ducks. ―Ibid.
“(Have you)Been doing a job?” ―Ibid.
A guy that(has)never been a truck skinner don’t know nothin’ what it’s like.
―Ibid.
And she ―“Doesn’t seem no longer than a week I(have) seen him myself.”
―Ibid.
“I know, but I(have)got a stomickache. I ain’t hungry.” ―Ibid.
“We(have)been three weeks from home.” ―Ibid.
Here I(have)got the sperit sometimes, an’ nothin’ to preach about. ―Ibid.
“All along I(have)seen it”he said. ―Ibid.
“Ever’place we stopped I(have)seen it. . . ” ―Ibid.
“. . . An’ when they’d get so hungry they couyldn’ stan’ it no more, why, thgey’d ast me to pray for ‘em, an’ sometimes I(have)done it.” ―Ibid.
Ma said, I(have)seen you nibblin’on somepin. What you eatin’? ―Ibid.
4.2 所有や義務の意を表す “have got” の “have” が脱落することが多い
Bergen Evans and Cornelia Evans の A Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage, p.
202 に よ れ ば,“When have got is used with either of these last two meanings, the have is pronounced very lightly and may not be heard. This is aceptable spoken English in the United States. But it is not acceptable written English.” と記述している。
So we(have)got to set here an’ just skin her along. ―Ibid.
“I(‘ve)got to make a run to Tulsa, an’ I never get back soon as I think.” ―Ibid.
“You(have)got to clean up,”she said briskly. ―Ibid.
You(have)got a clean dress. ―Ibid.
Joints is the only place you can pull up, an’ when you stop you (have) got to buy somepin so you can sling the bull with the broad behind the counter. ―Ibid.
Here I(have)got the sperit sometimes an’ nothin’ to preach about. ―Ibid.
Ma said helplessly, “I dunno what todo. I (have) got to feed the fambly.
What’m I gonna do with these here? ” ―Ibid.
“I(have)got a wife,”said the young man. “I(have)got no time for girls.” ―Ibid.
“I always (have) got time for girls,”said Al. “I (have) got no time for nothin’
else.” ―Ibid.
5 .“toInfinitive” の “to” の脱落
5.1 say, tell +不定詞 to の脱落
“say, tell” + 原形不定詞について George O. Curme, Syntax, p. 419は “In American English it is common to say so.” 即ち,米語ではごく普通の用法であると述べ,又 OED は “this use of say for tell is marked obsolete. It was once literary usage in England.” と説明している。
更に,G. キルヒナー『アメリカ語法辞典』,591-2頁に “to tell somebody to ~ ” と注記して いる。
Reason I says(to)buy her is she was a pop’lar car. ―Ibid.
“Al, Ma’s dishin’ up stew. She says(to)come git it.” ―Ibid.
“toinfinitive” が脱落していない例も 1 例併せて挙げておく。
If anybody says to come dance ― why, I’ll say you ain’t strong enough. I’ll say you’re poorly. An’ you can hear the music an’ all like that. ―Ibid.
Bergen Evans and Cornelia Evans の A Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage, p.
433 に, “The past tense in a passive form it may be followed by an infinitive, as in he is said to leave early. When it has an active form it is followed by a clause, as in he says he leaves early. When what was said was a command, such as hurry or tell him to hurry, the clause verb is a subjunctive equivalent, as in he said we should hurry or he said I should tell you to hurry. These constructions are literary English. In the United States today as infinitive is often used in place of this subjunctive clause, as in he said to hurry, he said to
tell you to hurry, he said for you to hurry. These constructions are condemned by some grammarians, especially the form using for you. But they can be heard in the speech of the best educated people and may well become the preferred forms.” と詳しく解説されて いる。
5.2 come, go +原形不定詞
“come, go” + 原形不定詞では “to”,や “and” が脱落したものと解釈する文法書もあるが,
歴史的にはどうも異なるようである。特にアメリカ英語では日常的に使用されている。大塚 高信著『シェイクスピア及び聖書の英語』,71頁に「現代英語で “go and see,” “come and see” を “go to see”“come to see” ともいうが,かような運動を示す動詞の後では,シェイク スピアや聖書の英語では “and” も “to” も使わない。」と記述している。これについて,岡村 弘著『口語英語の研究』,60頁に,「文語では come, go の後にくる不定詞は toinfinitive が普 通であるけれども,口語では Let’s go eat. のように bare infinitive を用いることがある。こ れは OE で対格の不定詞が運動の動詞の後で副詞的に用いられたことの名残りであり,
Shakespeare や聖書の英語は専らこの形を使っている。従って come, go の後に bare infini
tive を用いる come see, go see は come to see, go to see に於ける to の省略であると 説明 したり,また come, go の後へ and を用いて同様の意味を表すことがあるが,上 の bare infinitive の場合はこの and の省略された形でもない。come see, come to see, come and see はいずれも歴史的に夫れどれ独自の存在理由をもっている。」と詳しく持論を展開している。
しかし,一般的には come, go(and, to)と解されている場合が少なからずある。 従って,
大塚高信編『英語慣用法辞典』,264頁に「古くは come, go の後では to のない不定詞がよく 用いられた」とあり,「今日ではくだけた口語,ないし俗語または方言に見られる」との記 載がある。即ち,come, go の後に来る bare infinitive は歴史的には中世英語時代の古い英語 の名残であると思われる。因みに中世英語時代のイギリスが誇る劇作家・詩人 William Shakespeare(1564-1616)から “bare infinitive”,“toinfinitive”,及び “and” が用いられてい る用例を挙げると,
Aye, forsooth, and then you may come and see the picture, she says, that you wot of . ―William Shakespeare, The Merry Wives of Windsor, II. ii. 89.
尚,小西友七著『アメリカ英語の語法』,310頁に「go のあとに別の動詞が続く場合,go to do, go and do, go do の 3 つの言い方がある。この 3 つの表現はあとになるほどくだけた 言い方であるというほかに,意味上,また米英ということもからみ合ってきて複雑になる。
ふつうの意味以外に,嫌悪,不満,驚きなどのニュアンスを表しアメリカでは通例非標準と されるが,イギリスでは確立した口語となっている」,と親切な説明がつけられている。引 き続きシェイクスピアの作品から用例 を挙げると,
Quick, quick, we’ll come dress you straight. Put on the gown the while.
―Ibid., IV. ii. 84-5.
To be married to her. Friar, you come to marry her.
―Id., Much Ado About Nothing, IV. i. 7-8.
Pray you, go and vetch me in my closet un boitier vert ―a box, a green-a box.
―Id., The Merry Wives of Windsor, I. iv. 47-8.
I have much to do, But to go hang my head all at one side.
―Id., The Tragedy of Othello, The Moor of Venice, IV. iii. 31-32.
Tomorrow, sir. Best first go see your lodging.
―Id., The Twelfth Night, or What You Will, III. iii. 19.
We go to gain a little patch of ground
―Id., The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, IV. iv. 18-9.
序でに大塚氏の『シェイクスピア及び聖書の英語』,71頁から “and”,も “to” も使わない 聖書の “bare infinitive” の例を引用すると,
Son, go work to day in my vineyard. ―Matt. xxi. 28.
But let me first go bid them farewell, which are at home at my house.
―Luke. ix. 61.
Shakespeare の作品を精査すると,丁度この時代にロンドンでは一般に “come, go” の後に は “and” や “to” よりも “bare infinitive” を用いる方がどちらかというと優勢であったことが 窺える。従って,当時ロンドン市民は bare infinitive の方 を多用していたように思われる。
この用法が開拓者と共に新大陸のアメリカに渡りこの地に根付いたもので,従って,come, go + bare infinitive のアメリカ英語の用 法は言語の推移変遷過程から言って,多分に中世 時代の “and や to” を使わない古 い時代のイギリス英語の残存語法のように思われる節がある。
尚,次例はイギリスの小説家,Emily Bronte(1818-48)からの用例も併せて挙げておく。
Sometimes, while meditating on these things in solitude, I’ve got up in a
sudden terror, and put on my bonnet to go see how all was at the farm.
―Emily Bronte, Wuthering Heights.
また G. キルヒナー著『アメリカ語法事典』,587頁には “to” を欠く不定詞として,「come, go +原形不定詞」は現代アメリカでは今なおほとんど日常的に用いられている」,と述べら れているが,次例のように俗語・方言では,“toinfinitive” がくる例も時折見られるが,やは り圧倒的に「come, go +原形不定詞」の用例の方が多い。参考までに “to infinitive” がくる 例を 1 例を挙げておく。
Jessie said loudly, “This here’s Ms’ Joad an’ Rosasharn, come to live.”
―John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath.
小西友七著『アメリカ英語の語法』,87頁に「このような to の省略によって,動名詞の前 の前置詞の省略の場合と同様に,原形不定詞が副詞的に用いられているとみられる。かつ,
定形動詞と直結することによって,一般的に,直截的,即物的で,有無を言わせぬ断固たる 語感がこもるようである。したがって,特に命令文で好まれる。」と詳説している。
次にスタインベックの作品の中で用いられている “toinfinitive” を欠く例を挙げると,
Pull down a little jigger an’ the water comes right in the toilet, an’ they ain’t no cops let to come look in your tent any time they want, an’ the fella runs the camp is so polite, comes a-visitin’ an’ talks an’ ain’t high an’ mighty. ―Ibid.
“We ain’t et today,”he said to Floyd. “I’ll come give you a han’ when I eat.”
―Ibid.
“Come set down. It wasn’t nothin’. It won’t hurt.” ―Ibid.
Ma said, “Rosasharm, like a good girl go lay down with Granma, She needs
somebody now. She’s knowin’, now.” ―Ibid.
“Well, don’ take your word. Go see for yourself. ” ―Ibid.
You go steal that tire an’ you’re a thief, but he tried to steal your four dollars
for a busted tire. ―Ibid.
Go git him. ―Ibid.
One of you go get get some bale wire outa the barn. ―Ibid.
Now you go git water ―right down there. ―Ibid.
6 .主語と動詞(“be” 動詞及び助動詞を含む)の脱落
“There’s me wit all them people’s souls in my han’ ―(I was)responsible an’
feelin’ my responsibility ―an’ ever time, I lay with one of them girls.” ―Ibid.
(Cats are)all over hell now. ―Ibid.
“(Are you) Gonna get ‘im bore in a orange ranch, huh? In one a them white
houses with orange trees all roun’” ―Ibid.
“(Are you)Lookin’ for a job?” he asked. ―Ibid.
(You’re) Buying a plow to plow your own children under, buying the arms and spirits that might have saved you. ―Ibid.
“(He’s)Comin’ afoot,”he said. ―Ibid.
(Preaching is) doin’ good to fella that’s down an’ can’t smack ya in the puss
for it. ―Ibid.
I look at him an’ after I’m past I try to remember ever’thing abou him, kind a clothes an’ shoes an’ hat, an’ how he walked an’ maybe how tall (he was) an’
what weight an’ any scars. ―Ibid.
An’(I’ll)get me a little ol’ cutdown Ford. ―Ibid.
(We’ve)Blowed tube an’ casing all to hell. ―Ibid.
“Minute you cross the line you(‘ll have)done a crime.” ―Ibid.
(They are)Scairt to get in the light, ―Ibid.
“(They’re)Scairt to get in the light,”Muley whispered. ―Ibid.
(I’ve)Got a Lincoln ‘24. ―Ibid.
(I’ve)Just stdy a few easy lessons at home. ―Ibid.
(I’ve)got to make a run to Tulsa, an’ I never get back soon as I think.
(It’s)not the devil, Jesus is my Saviour now. ―Ibid.
Castle to Paden (it is) twentyfive miles and the sun passed the zenith and
started down. ―Ibid.
“(Do you)Like a little eatin’ tobacca?” ―Ibid.
(Do you)Like to get in to see that one? Sure, no trouble. I’ll pull her out of the
line. ―Ibid.
“(Do you)Want I should take her a piece?” he asked.
(Do you) Remember a fella who wanted us to put in that rubber bush they
call guayule? ―Ibid.
D’I(Did I)ever tell ya how Ruthie prayed when she was a little skinner? ―Ibid.
7 .関係代名詞の脱落
If you fellas wanta come along, I’ll show you where to sleep, where they ain’t
nobody(who)gonna stumble over ya. ―Ibid.
They’s some(who)does clutchan’hug dancin’! ―Ibid.
Here’s some fellas(who)want some breakfast, or how’d it be if you jus’ come in an’ stood there till she seen you? ―Ibid.
I remember a guy(who)use’ to make up poetry. ―Ibid.
How about Connie(who)comes aworkin’ for me? ― Ibid.
Pull down a little jigger an’ the water comes right in the toilet, an’ they ain’t no cops let to come look in your tent any time they want, an’ the fella (who) runs the camp is so polite, comes avisitin’ an’ talks an’ ain’t high an’ mighty. ―Ibid.
There ain’t so many folks (who) can feel so full up, so close, an’ them folks
standin’ there an’ me asingin’. ―Ibid.
They was a fella(who)had been uppity, an’ he nearly fainted when this fella
come in with a plug hat on. ―Ibid.
“. . . An’ if they’s another leader(who)pop up, why, they stick ‘im in jail.” ―Ibid.
“. . . They’s a fella; newspaper fella near the coast,(who)got a million acres ―”
―Ibid.
They was some folks (who) figgered it was a good respectable thing to have
a prescher along. ―Ibid.
Most folks(who)stops here ain’t got nothin’. ―Ibid.
“But let a man get property (which) he doesn’t see, or can’t take time to get his fingers in, or can’t be there to walk on it ― why, then the property is the
man. . .” ―Ibid.
See anything(which)attracts you? ―Ibid.
Remember a fella wanted us to put in that rubber bush (which) they call
guayule? ―Ibid.
Maybe it’s him(that)made me tell them people they couldn’t come here.
And used to get an irrigation ditch so squirmin’ full of repented sinners (that)
half of ‘em like to drowned ―Ibid.
Finally it give me such pain (that) I quit an went off by myself an’ give her a
damn good thinkin’ about. ―Ibid.
There’s a premium(that)goes with this pile of junk and the bay horses ― so beautiful ―a packet of bitterness to grow in your house and to flower, some day.
―Ibid.
I bet it’s that Connie(that)give you all them notions. ―Ibid.
8 .冠詞の脱落
“Fella I talked to(a)while ago, he’s with you, ain’t he?” ―Ibid.
“I ain’t never done nothin’ that wasn’t (a) part sin,”said John, and he looked at
the long wrapped body. ―Ibid.
Up the long slope, winding and twisting through (the) dead country, burned white and gray, and no hint of life in it. ―Ibid.
He said, “You people sure have got(the)nerve.” ―Ibid.
(The)Guy took the jackpot not two hours ago. ―Ibid.
The sun was half down in(the)afternoon. ―Ibid.
(The)Quicker we get started,(the)surer it is we get there. ―Ibid.
“ (The) Quicker I get lookin’ for work ― (the) quicker I’m gonna find some.”
―Ibid.
(The)Worse off we get, the more we got to do. ―Ibid.
(The)Quicker we get started,(the)surer it is we get there. ―Ibid.
(The)Quicker the better, now. ―Ibid.
The more fellas he can get, an’ the hungrier(they are),(the) less he’s gonna
pay. ―Ibid.
(The)Sooner the better. ―Ibid.
(The)Pilgrim’s Progress. ―Ibid.
An’ you never seen such purty country ― all orchards, an’ grapes, (the)
purtiest country you ever seen. ―Ibid.
(The)Salvation Army come an’ done us good. ―Ibid.
Up the long slope, winding and twisting through (the) dead country, burned white and gray, and no hint of life in it. ―Ibid.
“(The)Same to you. So long.” ―Ibid.
An’ you never seen such purty country ― all orchards, an’ grapes, (the)
purtiest country you ever seen. ―Ibid.
He said, “You people sure have got(the)nerve.” ―Ibid.
9 .形容詞の脱落
66 ― the long concrete path across the country, waving gently up and down on the map, from the Mississippi to Bakersfield ― over the red lands and the gray lands, twisting up into the mountains, crossing the (Great) Divide and down into the bright and terrible desert, and across the desert to the mountains again, and into the rich California valleys. ―Ibid.
Here I got the(holy)sperit sometimes an’ nothin’ to preach about. ―Ibid.
“(Good) Mornin’,” The older man said, and his face was neither friendly nor
unfriendly. ―Ibid.
10.前置詞の脱落
Go in there (at) midday when she was hotter’n a heifer, an’ she ‘d be jus’ as
cool, as cool as you’d want. ―Ibid.
“. . . Pull down a little jigger an’ the water comes right in the toilet, an’ they ain’t no cop let to come look in your tent (at) any time they want, an’ the fella runs th camp is so polite, comes avisitin’ an’ talks an’ ain’t high an’ mighty. I
wisht we could go live there again.” ―Ibid.
“. . . They was havin’ the time a their life, an’ (at) the same time you wouldn’
give a gopher for their chance.” ―Ibid.
They don’t stop(at)no place like this. ―Ibid.
Right over there,(at)the back a them tents. ―Ibid.
(By the)Time Grampa an’ another fella whanged into a bunch a Navajo in the
night. ―Ibid.
“It’s awright,”she said. “I didn’ wanta stop there, (for) fear we wouldn’ get
acrost.” ―Ibid.
“It’s awright,”she said. “I didn’ wanta stop there, (for) fear we wouldn’ get
acrost.” ―Ibid.
“A dog jus’ don’t last(for)no time near a highway.” ―Ibid.
“Oh, ‘bout six months. We lived in a gov’ment camp(for)a while, an’ then we went north, an’ when we come back it was full up. That’s a nice place to live, you
bet.” ―Ibid.
(From)Castle to Paden(it is)twentyfive miles and the sun passed the zenith
and started down. ―Ibid.
“Not goin’?” Pa demanded. “What you mean you ain’t agoin? Why, here we’re all packed up, ready. We got to go. We got no place to stay(in)” ―Ibid.
Now, you be careful(in)front of a lady. ―Ibid.
If ya don’ let me tell ya, then ya got to learn(in)the hard way. ―Ibid.
“Doin’ the same as us,”said Tom. “Goin’ (to) some place to live (in). tryin’ to
get along. That’s all.” ―Ibid.
“If I got a right to run my own business(in)my own way. . . ” ―Ibid.
She lost her glasses(in)the year I went up. ―Ibid.
Water,(in)case you get hung up. ―Ibid.
He looked in wonder at angry people, (in) wonder and uneasiness, as normal
people look at the insane. ― Ibid.
(In) the Nighttime I’d lay on my back an’ look up at the stars; (in) the morning I’d set an’ watch the sun come up; middy I’d look out from a hill at the rollin’ dry country;(in)the evenin’ I’d foller the sun down.
We got no place to live(in). ―Ibid.
“It ain’t a nice place to sleep (in)”, said Rose of Sharon, and she helped
Granma into the car. ―Ibid.
It’s pretty (in) some ways. ―Ibid.
“Well, maybe you’re wanted (in) someplace else. You keep your trap shut.
―Ibid.
“Sometimes the law can’ be foller’d(in)no way, said Pa.” ―Ibid.
All tore to(in)pieces an’ little. ―Ibid.
Careful(of)that gasket. ―Ibid.
“On’y a couple(of)dollars. How’d you get money?” ―Ibid.
But if ya come acrost my folks ―that’s really what I come to say ―if ya come on any(of)my folks in California, tell ‘em I’m well. ―Ibid.
Seems like Jesus got all messed up with troubles, and He couldn’t figure nothin’
out, an’ he got to feelin’ what the hell good is it all, an’ what’s the use(of)fightin’
an’ figurin’. ―Ibid.
“Yeah,”said Muley. “I’ll like to have a couple(of)dogs. Yeah! I’ll take ‘em” ―Ibid.
Fella’s got ―See that sign ‘longside(of)the road there? ―Ibid.
Take plenty(of)water, case you get hung up. ―Ibid.
“Well, I’m Chairman(of)the Entertainment Committee. . . ―Ibid.
(On)Monday we’ll get the thing an’ prob’ly won’t get her fitted ‘fore Tuesday.
―Ibid.
“Me too,”said Tom. “Say,(on)the day I come outa McAlester I was mokin’. . .”
―Ibid.
“. . . An’ maybe twothree thousan’ folks gets movin’ (on) account a this here
han’bill.” ―Ibid.
“No,” said Joad, “I ain’t, I got seven years,(on)account of he had a knife in me.
Got out in four ―parole.” ―Ibid.
“Over by Weedpatch. Got nice toilets an’ baths, an’ you kin wash clothes in a tub, an’ they’s water righthandy, good drinkin’ water; an’ nights the folks play music an’(on)Sat’dy night they give a dance. . . ―Ibid.
“Oh,(on)the night that Maggie died, she called me to her side, an’ give to me them ol’ red flannel drawers that Maggie wore. They was baggy at the knees ―”
―Ibid.
“Ain’t goin’(to)go. Jus’ tar’d. Goin’(to) res’ ri’ here.” ―Ibid.
He looked into the barn shed, deserted, (with) a little ground straw on the floor, and at the mule stall in the corner. ―Ibid.
It was a new truck, shining red, and in twelveinch letters on its sides ―(with)
Oklahoma City Transport Company. ―Ibid.
Behind the harrows, the long seeders ― twelve curved iron penes erected in the foundry, (with) orgasms set by gears, raping methodically, raping without
passion. ―Ibid.
He looked into the barn shed, deserted, (with) a little ground straw on the floor, and at the mule stall in the corner. ―Ibid.
11.接続詞の脱落
“come, go + and, to 及び bare infinitive” の用法については語法的な観点から既に460~
462頁で詳説したが,接続詞は本来,純粋に語 ・ 句 ・ 節を連結する役割を担っているという 文法的な大前提から接続詞の代表格である “and” を便宜上取りあえず接続詞としてこの項目 に入れておくことにする。
Cut her up,(and)she’d cool quicker anyways. ―Ibid.
Go(and)git him. ―Ibid.
“You stay out here a little while, an’ if you smell any roses, you come(and)let
me smell, too.” ―Ibid.
Pull down a little jigger an’ the water comes right in the toilet, an’ they ain’t no cops let to come (and) look in your tent any time they want, an’ the fella runs the camp is so polite, comes a-visitin’ an’ talks an’ ain’t high an’ mighty, ―Ibid.
You go (and) steal that tire an’ you’re a thief, bu he tried to steal your four
dollars for a busted tire. ―Ibid.
A thickfurred yellow shepherd dog came trotting down the road, with head
low,(and)tongue lolling and dripping. ―Ibid.
Go(and)git the preacher. ―Ibid.
Go(and)git him. ―Ibid..
“I’ll come(and)give you a han’ when I eat.” ―Ibid.
“Yeah, I know. But like that fella says, they’re a-goin’ anyways. Nothin’ won’t be changed from what I tol’ ‘em, ‘cept(that)they ‘ll be mis’able ‘fore they hafta.”
―Ibid.
Well, it so happens(that)I can tell you. ―Ibid.
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