The Phenomenon of Corruption in China

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The Phenomenon of Corruption in China

著者 HISHIDA Masaharu

出版者 Institute of Comparative Economic Studies, Hosei University

journal or

publication title

Journal of International Economic Studies

volume 5

page range 21‑29

year 1991‑03

URL http://doi.org/10.15002/00002086

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JoumaloflntemationalEconomicStudies（1”1)No.5,21-29

.1”lThelnstituteofComparativeEconomicStudies,HosciUnive｢sity

ＴＨＥＰＨＥＮＯＭＥＮＯＮＯＦｃＯＲＲＵＰｒｌＯＮｍｂｌＣＩｎＮＡ＊

MasahamHISHIDA

A"ocjZJ妃Ｐｍ/面oBRzcu4J(ｙｑ/、に、４J"o"αﾉＲｅﾉmDPzs，Ｕ'､ｉｖｅ面jリｑｆＳﾉijzHoka

1．Intmduction

MikhaiIS・Voslenski,inhiswork/VOme"Mzr"、(1980)attestingtotheexistcnce

ofclassconfrontationinSovietsociety,definestheⅣOme"kﾉqmmasagrouphaving

thespeciaIprivilegetosqueezebenefitsfOritselfasadefactorulingclassandthus obtainingwealththroughpower，notpowerthroughwealth'）FridrikhNezanski，

thefOnnerchiefprosecutoroftheMoscowMunicipalProsecutor，sOfficelabeled

crimesinthefieldofadministration,pubIicprosecution,andotherofficiaIpostsin

theSovietUnionasducto“theMafiaandMafiosaoftheSovietUnion,,anddrcwa

vividpictureoftheiractivities,2）TheseperspectiveswerefOreshadowedinthe

descriptiondrawnoftheSovietUnionbyPaulM・Sweezy，atthetimeofthe50th

anniversaryoftheRussianRevolution，ａｓｂｅｉｎｇａ“depoliticizedsociety，，ｗｈｉｃｈ

ｗｏｕｌｄｉｎｔｈｅｅｎｄｃｈａｎｇｅｔｏａｎｅｗclasssystemif“massinfiltrationfrombelow,，，

"organizedpoliticalstruggle，,，orothermeansofeffectiveoppositionwerenot

raisedagainstpowerandprivilege3)ThisworksuggestedthattheSovietUnionwas

changingtoaclasssocietyandthattherulingclassofpoliticalofficialsand

economicmanagerswerefacingoffwiththemassesofworkingpeople,withsharp

disparitiesinincomeandsocialstandingatthetwosidesofadeepchasmfOrmed

betweenthetwo、

Ontheotherhand,letusleavethesubjectofsocialismandtumoureyestothe processofmodemizationinAsia､BasedonthevariousfOnnsofcorruptionwhich occurredinSingaporeinthe1960s,thesociologistSyedHusscinAlataspointedout

thatthephenomenonofcolTuptioninthedeveIopingcountrieswastheendrcsult

ofalonghistoricalprocessdatingbackfrombefOremodemizationbutthattheroot

causeofthecolTuptionandthepreｓｓｕｒｅｓｐｒｏｍｏｔｉｎｇｉｔｗａｓｔｈｅｌａｃｋｏｆｃffective

govemmentalfUnctions､4)ＪｏｈｎＢ，Monteiro,basedonacasestudyofIndiaupto

thel970s，cIaimedthattherootcauseofcorruptionwasabroadrangeof

sociopoliticalfactorssuchasthegcneralignoranceofthepeople，lackofpolitical

vigilance,blindobediencetoconstitutedauthorityJackofawarenessofrightsand privileges，nondevelopmentofinfOrmationmedia，andchronicapathyrootedina

senseｏｆｆａｔａｌｉｓｍｉｎａｄｄｉｔｉｏｎｔｏｗｈａｔｈｅcalled“maIadmmistration，,.Ｓ）Gunnar

Myrdal,whoharboreddoubtsconcemingoptimisticviewpointsonmodemization，

｡)ThisisaにvisedversionoftheanicIcwritteninJapanesewhichwasoriginaIlypubIishcdinK､YamanouchiandK・Kikuchieds．

（1990）Ｃ'iwgoA側kEizaj〃ＣＭ"11K)'oAHJPue"SmDkisekilD7Wubolu,HoseiDaigakuShuppanKyokunVとwASpec⑬ｑ′Jhe ChbTes巴丘”⑥my:TViePro““q/ＲＥ/blm“ｄ妬ＰｍＳＰ“・Tbkyo・HosciUnivc応ilyPresS).TniSbOokiSoneofthe雁sultsof researchonModemChmeseEconomybyastudygrouporganizedatHoseiUnivc厩iIy，slnstituRcofCompamtiveEconomic

Studies、

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Ｍ漣nharuHISHIDA

ｔｏｏｋｎｏｔｅｏｆｔｈｅ“fOlkloreofcorruption，，andpointedoutthatitwasextremely difficultmSouthAsiatodrumupadesireforprofitandmarketcompetitioninthe Westemsenseandtoelimi､atethedesireforpersonallyprofitingfromareas

belongingproperlytopublicresponsibilityandpower､MyrdaIfUrtherestablished

thatcertainactionswhichwouldneverbesourcesofprofitintheWestwere

generallyconsidered“moneycows，，ａｎｄｔｈａｔｅｖｅｎａｔｙｐｅｏｆ“market,，existedfOr themasaremnantofprecapitalisttraditionaIsociety､6）Ｉｎｓｕｍｍａｒｙ，ｉｔｍａｙｂｅｏｂｓｅｒｖｅｄｔｈａｔｒｏｕｇｈｌｙｔｈｅｓametypeofcorruptionoccurspervasivelydueto

administrativeprivilegeintheprocessofdevelopmentofAsiancountriesaswith

thespecialprivilegesanddisparitiesseeninthesocialistSovietUnion

Thisphcnomenon,theexistenceofspccialprivilegeandthemarkedoccurrence ofcorruptionspringingfromthesame,isgrowingmoredeeplyandmoreinChina，

４０yearsaftertheRevolutionandlOyearsafterthestartofthenewdevelopment

programofrefOrmandeconomic“opendoors，，，thancomparedwithRussia50 yearsafterthcRevolutionandtheAsiancountriesattheeconomictakeoffpoint、

Thatistosay,sincethelatel980s,whenthcseparatepoliciesoftheeconomic

refOnnshadalmostallcomeoutandbeguntoclash,theChinesehaveencountered

difficultiesofunprecedenteddepthintheeconomicandsocialspheres・These

difficultiesseemtobeemergingontheirownbeforeoureyesasopeｎｓｏｒｅｓｗｉｔｈａｎｅｖengreaterimpactthanthedifficultiesoftheSovietsocictyatthetimeofthe50th

anniversaryoftheRevolution，whichevenshookSweezy，sviewoftheSoviet

Union，andthosewhichcausedMonteirotoarguefortheintroductionofan ombudsmansystemintoIndiansociety・

Seenoverall，thehistoricalmodemizationeffOrtofChina，launchedwithallits

newtrappingsunderthenameofeconomicreformsbythethirdplenarysessionof

thellthCentralConmitteeoftheCommunistPartyofChinawiththeintentofthe selftransfOrmationofsocialismhasinitselfbecomeagiantprobleｍＡｌｌｏｆｔｈｅ

ａｃｈｉｅｖｅｍｅntsofpastrefOnnsmaybeindangerofdisappearingwiththefragilityof somanysoapbubbles、Needlesstosay，thepoliticalcrisisofthecredibilitygap causedbytheTiananmenSquarelncidentofl989andthe“crisisofsuccession，，ｉｎｔｈｃｒａｎｋｓｏｆｐｏｗｅｒｒｅｎｃｃｔｔｈｅserious，criticalaspectsincontinuingChina，sstate

apparatusasaviablepoliticalinstitutionFromtheperspectiveofthisarticle，

however,thedeepestproblemexistinginChinatodayistheallianceofpowerand

moneyinwhattheChinesecallg“"dUJo・Thepoliticalcrisis，ｏｆcourse，andthe successioncrisisitselfmaｙａｌｓｏｂｅｓａidtobeaffectedbythis・Thereasonisthatthe

aUianceofmonｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｅｒ，astypifieding“"｡α０．，whichalIiancewemaycall

the“money（qian）ａｎｄpower（quan）network，，，ｌｉｃｓｌｉｋｅａｔｉｍｅｂｏｍｂｄｅｅｐＩｙｅｍｂｅｄｄｅdinallsectorsofcontemporaryChina-economics，politcs，society，ａｎｄ

ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ

Ｏｆｗｈａｔｎａｔｕｒｅｉｓｔｈｉｓ“innerenemy"，ｔｈｉｓｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｏｆｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｃｒｉｎＣｈｉｎａ？DoesitmainlyderivefromtheinstitutionalfactorsofsociaUsmassecnfrom theSovietcase？Altematively，isthekeynotethealmostuniversalfactorsseenin

theprocessofmodernizationofnonsocialistdevelopingcountries？Ｌｅｔｕｓｔｒｙｔｏ

ｄｅｔｅｒｍｉｎｅｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｏｆｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｅｒｉｎＣｈｉnausingthe institutionalfactorsofsocialismandthedevelopmentfacｔｏｒｓｏｆＡｓｉａａｓ

ｃomparativeaxesげGivingtheconclusionfirst，ｉｔｗｏｕｌｄｓｅｅｍｔｈａｔｔｈｉｓｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄ

ｐｏｗernetworkisahistoricalproblemunｉｑｕｅｔｏＣｈｉｎａａｓａＴｅｓｕｌｔｏｆｔｈｅ

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ＴＨＥＰＨＥＮｏＭＥＮＯＮＯＦＣＯＲＲＵＰＴＩＯＮｎｖＣＨIＮＡ

mprecedentedinstitutionalchangebeingimplementedintheeconomicreforms・

Thatis，itreflectsthefactsthattheChinesesocietyremainslargelydependenton traditionalmechanismsofadjustmentotherthantheplanningmechanismandthe marketmechanismandthatold，inherentpattemsofbehaviorareresurfacingdue

totheproblemsoccurringintherefOrmprograｍ・Takingthismatterfurther，the ChineseeconomicrefOrmsthemselvesbroughttothesurfaceimbala､cesand imperfectionsinthemarket，whichmadeeventherationalizationofeconomic actionsaimedatbythecurrentrefOrmsirrationaIandgavebirthtothenetwoｒｋｏｆｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｅｒａｓ“anotherrationality，,．

2．AmbiwhlencetoGmα"｡α０

Whatexactlydoestheterm8“"dUJomean？Etymologically,itmeansthedaQye ortwistingofactions,ｂｙｇｚｲﾛ"dtJo，orgovcmmentofficials,ｅ､9.,resaleofsupplies，

speculativeactions，andothereconomiccrimes，whatisgeneralIyknownas

corruptiｏｎｌｎｓｏｆａｒａｓｔｈｉｓｇｏｅｓ,theexistenceofspecialprｉｖｉｌｅｇｅｓａｎｄｔｈｅｍｉｓｕｓｅ

ｏｆｔｈｅｓａｍｅｉntheSovietUnionandthevarioustypesofadministrativecnmes

occurringintheprocessofdevelopmentofotherAsiannationsmayalsobesaidto

beotherversionsofg“"｡､。、Conversely，however，itdoesnotseemappropnate togeneralizethephenomenoninChinasimplyasafOrmofthecorruptionfOundin

othercountnes・

ItistruethatthecorruptionwhichisdirectlymanifestedbygJｲα"ｄｑｏａｐｐｅａｒｓｔｏｂｅｏｆｔｈｅｓａｍｅｎａｔｕｒｅasthegeneralphenomenaAcharacteristicfeaturewhich maybeextractedfromcorruptioninChina，ｆｏｒexample，ｉｓｔｈｅｕｓｅｏｆｐｏｗｅｒｆＯｒｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｐｒofit(yj9“〃、o”).Thesupralegalpursuitandacquisitionofpersonal gaintieintothcdefinitionsofcorruptionbythevanousresearchersgivenatthe

beginningofthisarticleAtalasdefinedcorruptionasbribery，extortion，and

nepotism7)Further，Neznanskiclassifiedcorruption，oradministrativecrimes，ａｓ

bribery，exceedingofauthority，perversionofofficialauthority，andmisuseof

authorityorofficiaIposition8）Anothergeneralschoolofthoughtconsiders

corTuptionasafailingofthecadrｅｓａｎｄｔｏｂｅａｎｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃｃｒｉｍｅａｌｏｎｇｗith

institutionaloffensesbyorganizationsandcrimesofthepoorsuchastheft,private useofpublicproperty,andabsenteeism9)Insofarasthisgoes,thephenomenonof g“"ぬowhereinpowerisusedforpersonalprofitinChinamaybesaidtobeabout

thesameastheinstitutionalfactorsofsocialismandtheAsiandevelopmental

factors・

Anotherimportantaspectofg皿ａ"`αoinChinaisthesupralegaluseofpowerin pIaceofthelaw(yj9“"ぬ伽thatis,theabiIitytoavoidlegalprosecutiondueto

powerandprivilege・ThissupralegalityofcolTuptionisalsoobservedintheSoviet

Union，whereNeznanskiobservesthatitisinprinciplethepeoplewhocommit occupationalcrimesthataresupposedtounmaskthem1o）TherefOre，lookingat

justthesetwoaspectsofuseofpowerfOrpersonaIprofit(yj9皿α"、o“Oanduseof powerinplaceoflawOj9“〃。α伽,asimilaritywiththefactorsofinstitutional socialismandtheAsiandevelopmentcanbediscerned・

However,thebiggestdifferencebetweeng“"dnoandcorruptionfOundinother

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Ｍ３函h＄rｕｍＳＨＩＤＡ

countriesistheexistenceofthesocialawarenessofthesituationbehｉｎｄｇｍ"｡α０．

Thephenomenonofg“"dtzoinChinaisamatterofdistastebutalsoambivalence andevenacertaintypeofsupportinthesocialconsciousness・Itisadirectproduct oftheeconomicrefOrmssincel978andanincreaseａｎｄｐｅrmeationintotheoverall societyofstrivingaftermoneyorwealthasthemostimportantgoal(9ｍ"'"j〃

/i"顔"α"g)．

Itisthisoverallsocialambivalenｃｅｗｉｔｈｒｅｇａｒｄｔｏｇ“"cmothatmakesthe existenceofthenetworkｏｆｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｅｒｉｎＣｈｉｎａｓｏｕｎｉｑｕｅ、Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ,thisisaprimaryconditionforitsexistence、Lctuslookatthispointinmore

detaiL

TheeconomicrefOrmswhichbeganinl978,attheriskofoversimpnfication,ｍａｙｂｅｓａｉｄｔｏｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎａｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｏｆｆreeingthecomsumerdemand-whichhadbeen suppressedfOrsolongbythecombinationofthetraditionalideasofconfOrmityand thesocialistorientationtowardequality,Thisshowsthatgrowthintheinitialstages oftheeconomicrefOrmswasinitselfguidedbyconsumptionFurther,xjnlqルorthe ideaofenrichingcertainsectorsofthepopulationfirst，whichwasattheheartof therefOrmsｏｆｔｈａｔｔｉｍｅ，clearlyhadasitscontenttheencouragementof consumption

Thedirectresultwasthespreadofthesocialphenomenonofmoneyorientation

startingin1987.TheofficialcaUfromDcngXiao-pingof"xianfU"[i､e､tobecomc

first]wasrapidlyacccptedthroughoutChinesesocietyThisfactitselfmaybesecn showingthat“xianfU,,hadastrongappealtodeep,traditionalelementsofChinese socicty・TherfOre，inrelationtothis，ｇ“"dａｏｗａｓｏｎｌｙａｎｏｖｅｒreactiontothe

“xianfU,,whichhadreceivedwidespreadpopularsupport・Despitethefactthatthe

legitimacｙｏｆｔｈｅｍｅａｎｓｆｏｒ“xianfU，，itselfshouldbeconsideredaproblem，the

properboundswereexceededandonlytheendresult，gettingrichfirst，ｂｅｃａｍｅ important・Ｉｎｔｈｅ“xianfU，,idea，theunclarityofthemeansofenrichmentanｄｔｈｅｅｘｃｃｓｓｃａｒｃａｂｏｕｔｅｎｄｇｏａｌｏｆｅｎrichmentarebelievedtocausedthisimbalance Themonothisticworldviewofmoneyaboveallandthetoralorientationtoward

money，derivedfromtheidea“xianfu，，，becameentrenchedandpervasive throughoutthesocialconsciousnessofChinaintherefOrmperiod・Initsentirety，

thismeamaliteralworshipofmoney・Socialistideology，intheprocessofactual development,graduallylostitsfUnctionasaframeofreferenceandmoneybecame thenewstandardTherefore，inthatsense，ｇ“"｡［zomaybeviewedasamass ovcrreactionto"xianfu"attheworkingleveLwhichskippedoverjudgementofthe Iegitimacyofmeans．

3．AnotherRatiomality

Ｇ“"ddzointhisway,hadsociaIsupportduetothis,butletuslookbackatthis

fromtheoverallcontextofeconomicreforms・'1）originally，economicbehavior

includesbothrationalelementsandirrationalclcmcntsatthcsamctime､Thcscare

considerablyinHuencedbythevaluesystems，sentiment，andtraditionsofthe personsengagedineconomicactivities，asMaxWeberpointedout、Ｉｎｔｈｅａｃｔｕａｌ

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ＴｌｌＥＰＨＥＮＯＭＥＮＯＮＯＦＣＯＲＲＵＰＩＹＯＮＩＮＣＨIＮＡ

developmentoftherefOrmsinChina，however，theincompletenessofthe introductionofthemarketandtraditionalphilosophiesresultedinthe“irrational,，

elementsproceedingatanacceleratedpace・

First，ｍｅｎｔｉｏｎｍｕｓｔｂｅｍａｄｅｏｆｔｈｅｆａｃｔｔｈａｔthemarkctmechanismitself，in whichalmostabsoluｔｅｔｒｕｓｔｈａｄｂｅｅｎｇｉｖｅｎａｔｔｈｅｓｔａｒｔｏftherefOrms，failedto workeffectively・Themarketwaskeptsmallandtherangeofactionofthemarket mechanismwaslimitedBecauscofthis,evcntheparticipantsinthemarketscould notachievetheirexpectedeconomicgoals､Asaresult,theChinesehadtorelyon othernonmarketmeanstomakeupfOrthedeficiencies､Theothermeansreferred toherearcdirectlyIinkedto8“'uJrji.ｅ,，thesumtotalofface-to-facerelations，

basedoninfOrmalexchangesofinfOrmation；InChinaitbecamenecessaryto acquiregHcmxjbyapproachingpeopleinauthority，keypersonsintheliteralsense oftheword，inthenetworkofconnectionstoachieveone，sgoals・nlerefOre，in additiontotheinsufficiencyoftheChineserefOrms，ｉｅ.，ｔｈｅsmallsizeofthe marketintroduced，ｔｈｅｒｅｗａｓａｌａｃｋｏｆａｓｏｃｉａｌｆｒａｍｅｗｏｒkforthemarket mechanismtofUnctioneffectivelyinThesetwofactorsaggravatedeachotherand aｓａｒｅｓｕｌｔｌｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｄｙｓｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｔhereforms・

Iftheincompletenessofthemarketｉｓｔａｋｅｎｉｎｔｈａｔｓｅｎｓｅａｓａｎｅｘｔｅｍａｌｅnvironmentalfactoroftheeconomy,thenthesecondfactor,ｔｈｅｕｓｅｏｆ８皿cmxjmay besaidtobepartlyareHectionoftraditionalpsychologicalanｄｃulturalfactors presentinChina・Asisoftenpointedout,thisincludesastressonkinshiprelations andregionalaffiliationsａｓｔｈｅｆＯｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｆＯｒａｓｅｎｓｅｏｆｃｏｍｍunityprevalent throughouttraditionalChina・Thisbroughttothesurfaceeconomictransactions basedontheaffOrementionedg“"xiornetworkofconnectionsandlegitimizedits useinthepublicawareness・Thisnetworkofconnections，ｔｈａｔis，thenetworkof infOrmalpersonalrelationsinthebusinessfield，hastheimportantfunctionof substitutingfOrfOrmalorganizationalrelationships、Rrst，thelowefficiencyof organizationsinChinahasresultedinadiverserangeofproblemsinfOrmal relationsbetweenorganizations，ｓｏｅｖｅｎｉｎｃａｓｅｓｗｈｅｒｅｕｒｇｅｎｃｙｉｓｒｃｑuired，it sometimestakesalmostunthinkabletimefOranythingtogetdone・Asopposedto this,throughinfOrmalnetworkofrelationships，evencomplexproblemsspanning

diverseareasandorganizationscanberesolvedspeedilybyafewkeypersons､'2）

Second，duetotheclosednatureoforganizationsinChina，themaintenanceof smoothcommunicationswithkeypersonsenabIesonetocomeintocontactwitha rangeofinformationwhichcouldnototherwisebeobtainedthroughformal exchangesbetweenorganizations，theusualchannels・Inprinciple，thisisin violationofregulationsoverleakageoforganizationalinformation,buttheparties

concemeddonotfeelａｎｙｓｅｎｓｅｏｆｗｒｏｎｇｄｏｉｎｇａｓｔｈｅｙａｒｅｍaintaining

infbrmalties、ＡｓｐｏｉｎｔｅｄｏｕｔｂｙＭｙｒｄａｌｉｎｔｈｃbeginning，ｔｈｅｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｏｆ●

connectionshasnsenrapidlyflPomthedepthsofChinesesociety，ｗｈｅｒｅｉｔｈａｄａｌｗａｙｓｂｅｅｎｄｏｒｍａｎｔａｓｆblklore，intotherealworIdofrefOrmduetotheneedfOr nonmarketmeanstosolveproblems、

Tumingthisaround,however,toconsideralIofthissituationasirrationalwouｌｄｂｅｔｈｅｓａｍｅａｓｐｕｔｔｉｎｇｉｎｔｏｏｎｅｂａｓｋｅｔａｌｌｔｈｅｒｅａｌｉｔｉｅｓｏｆＣｈｉｎａｉｎｔｈｅrefOrm periodOnewouldbeentangledinthetrapofexcessmodemrationalismas toucheduponearlier、Simply，ｉｔｗｏｕｌｄｓｅｅｍｔｏｂｅｕｎｆａｉｒｔｏｌａｂｅｌａｌlofthis irrationaLThatistosay，ａｓｓｈｏｗｎｂｙｔｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｏｃｉａｌanthropologyoｆＣ．

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Ma-lwnruHISHIDA

LeviStrauss,thereareadjustmentmechanismsotherthanthemarketmechanism anditwouldbedifficulttobrandtheseas“premodem”ｏｒ“irrational，,and eliminatethembasedonunilateralmodemrationaIismWecontinuetorelydeeply inmodernsociety，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｍｅｒｅＩｙａｎｅｒａｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｍａrketeconomieshave becomeweIlestablished,onnonmarket,communaladjustmentmechanismswhich wegenerallycall“traditions，，、AsKarlPolanyireveaIs，totaldominancebythe marketmechanismisaspecifichistoricalphenomenumandmerelytheproductof

theinstitutionsofaspecialtime・'3)Therefore，ｗｅｓｈｏｕｌｄｎｏｔｄｅｅｍｔｈｅａｂｏｖｅａｓ

ｂｅｉｎｇａnirrationaIaspectofa“backward”china,butratherasanotherrationality fUnctioningpracticallyastheabovenetworkofconnections、

Tumingthisaroundagain，however,thisshowsthattheproblemshavebecome supenmposedThatis，duetothisotherrationality，ｔｈｅcormptionbyofficials knownasguJα"cmoinChinahasstronglyinfiltratedintothedepthsoftheChinese systemThisisextremelyregrettablefOrtheprogressofrefOrmprogramsaimingat rationalityofaction．

4．MeasuresAgainstG“"dｑｏ

Duetothespreadofcorruptionwithitssocialrootsandsupport，eventhe politicalauthoritieshavebeenfOrcedtotakeupcountermeasuresagainstitasakey programThereasonisthatthecorruptionhasreachcdscalesfarbeyondthateven undertheNationalistsandthatwatchingthisinsiIencewouldhaveanimpactonthe Communist，slegitimacyofrulcFurther,becauscofpoliticaldemandsfromthose claimingcorruptionisduetointemalinstitutionaIfactors，theauthoritieshaveto countercorruptioninadvanceontheirownandpresentthepoliticalpositionthat anti-gm"daoactivitiesarereallyanti-establishment、

Thcmeansplannedbythepoliticalauthoritiestodealwiththephenomeｎｏｎｏｆｇ“"dtzoisafullscaleeffortinestablishingmodelfOrbehaviorthroughstrict enfOrccmentofthelawsandregulationsonofficialsofvariousorganizations､Ｔｈａｔ is，thesituationofg“"dａｏｉsrecognizedandassessedasbytheChineseina fundamentalIydifferentwayfromthatwehavejustconsideredThereisa deliberateeffOrtmadeｔｏｐｉｎｔｈｅｂＩａｍｅｏｎｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌｓａｎｄｓtrictevasion

Theofficialstandpointisofcoursethatthesocialistsystemisinherently antagonistictowardsandmutuallyexclusiveofallformsofcorruptionTheChinese citeMarx，sCritiqueoftheGothaProgrametc・andclaimthatthepracticalevilsof socialistsocieties，includingcorruption，arenotderivativesofsocialistsocicties themselves,butpoisonscausedbythematrixoftheoldsociety-thestinkoftheold

societywhichwillonedaydisappear・'4〕Ｔｈａｔis，corruption，including“abnormaI，，

conditionsintheCommunistParty,isarguedtobecausedbycorrosiveactionfrom theoutSide，Attoday，sstage，afterthel989Tiananmenlncident，theauthorities arguethatremnantsoffeudalismandstrongaspirationfOr“bourgeoisliberties,，

CombinedtofOrmthatexternalcorrosion15）

ThisunderstandingofcorruptioninChina,whichwecancalltheextemalcause theory，ｍａｔｃｈｅｓｗｅｌｌｗｉｔｈｈｏｗｃｒｉｍｅｉｓｖｉｅｗｅｄｉｎｔｈｅＳｏｖｉｅｔＵｎｉｏｎｌｎｔｈｅｐａｓｔ，

SovietlegalscholarsandcriminologistshavearguedmainIythatthecauseofcrime

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ＴＨＥＰＨＥＮＯＭＥＮＯＮＯＦＣＯＲＲＵＰＴＴＯＮＩＮＣＨIＮＡ

undersocialismwastheremnantsofthepastinthepeople,smindsandinfluenceof othercountriesonpeople，sheartsTheyonlytouchuponasmerelyasecondary cause,theexistenceofcontradictionsofanonconfrontationalbasisofaneconomic andsocialnatureinthedailylifeoftheSovietsociety.Inotherwords,theyargued thatsocialfactors,nottheonlycauseofcrimes,canbegraduallyresolvednotinthe

frameworkofcurrentsocialismandthateliminationofsuchsocialevilsdidnot

requireanystructuralchangesatalLInthisrespect，thesamefeaturesandsame groundsmaｙｂｅｆｏｕｎｄｉｎＣｈｉｎaandtheSovietUnion

TherefOre,itisessentialtolaytheblameo、individualsintreatingthesymptoms ofgmMZJoduetothisextemalcausetheory,Ｔｈａｔis，thewaytheextemalcause groupseesthefacts，theabsolutemajorityofofficialsareworkinghardand honestlytoservｅｔｈｅｐｕｂｌｉｃａｎｄｕｐｈｏｌｄｔｈｅｌawandonlyasmallnumberare engagedinbribery,misuseofpower,etc・Thisperceptionofthefactslocalizesthe sourceofthegm"daoasproblemsofcharacterofindividualsandlaystheblame onlyonfallenofficiaIs・Thisistominimizetheinherentproblemofthesocialbasis ofgm"dJo・

Despitethis，therearebasicdifficultiesinimplementationofthelocalized measuresoftreatmentofg“"ｄａｏｉ.e､，treatmentofindividualcasesofcorruption、

TheChinesethemselvesspeakofdifficultiesindraftinglaws，investigations，and processingAsshownbythis,therearetoomanycases,toolittlelawsdrafted,too manyprosecutionsavoided,toofewprosecutionsstarted,toomanyeasysentences，

andtoolittleactualtimeserved,'6）Ｍｏｒｅspecifically，duetothedifficultyin

accusingandprosecutingeconomiccnmesinvolvingpartymembers，thereis considerableinterferenceatalllevelS・Ｍostparticularlythereisremarkable obtusivenessornegativityinresponsesebysectorsorregionssteadfastlyprotecting localinterests・Moreimportantly,duetotheIackofthoroughpolicies,institutions，

andlegalsystems，itisdifficulttoclearlyseparatethelegalfromtheillegaL Somewhatprudentially，ｉｔｍａｙｂｅｓａｉｄｔｈａｔｉｔｉｓｔｈｅａｂｏｖｅｆａｃtorsmentioned themselvesthatareｔｈｅｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｏｆｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｅｒｓｅｅｎｉntheprevioussection Thisshowsthatevenwithrespecttotheofficialresponseofclampingdownon g"α"ｄａｏｔｈｉｓｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｏｆｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｅｒwhichformsthesourceofthisofficial corruptioncomesintopIay・Here,conversely,therangeofthisnetworkofmoney anｄｐｏｗｅｒｉｓｒｅａｆｆｉｒｍｅｄ．

5．InSearchofaSolution

Fromourviewpoint,thatis,theexistenceofthisnetworkofmoneyandpowerin societyitselfthatliesbchindg“"dtzothereareclearlimitstomeasuresbasedon layingblameonindividualsltistruethattherehavebeensomemeasurestakenfOr thereOrganization，merger，ｏｒｅｌｉｍｉｎａｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｏｍｅｇｏｖｅｍmentcommerciaI companies・Theseactionsandtheinvestigationsintoindividualofficialcorruption caseshaveledtosomediminishmentofcorruptionThetreatmentsofarhashada suppressiveeffect､Thiscannotbedenied,However,inexactlythesamewayasthe factthatreliefofsymptomsdoesnotnecessarilyleadtoeliminationofthedisease，

ｔｈｅｒｅｉｓｓｔｉＵｎｏｂａｓｉｃｃｈａｎｇｅｉｎｔｈｅｎetworkofmoneyandpowerinsociety．

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Ｍ幻suDh2mHISHIDA

Therefore,thcissuehastobebrokendownhere・Thatis,giventheexistenceof thenetworkofmoneyandpowerinsociety，thcquestioniswhetherthe affblcmentioned“anotherrationality”canberecognizedasitisandmadepositive useofIftheanswerisno,thentheonlycourseistopursueatotaleliminationof themoneyandpowernetworkitselfalongwiththeinitialtargetofrationalization

ofactionsinthecourseofeconomicrefOrms・

Thebiggestraisond,etrefOrthe“anotherrationality,，forthemoneyandpower networkisthattheexistenceofsuchanetworkisconsiderednecessarynotonlyfOr theactualbeneficiariespartytotransactions,butfOrthewholesystem・Thisreason fOrexistencecontinuestobcoverlookedandthercsultingdifferenceinthedegree ofbenefitsisconsideredaproblemonlywhenitbecomesamatterofjealousy・Itis fOrthisreasonthatleniencyiｓｅｘｔｅｎｄｅｄｔｏｔｈｅmoneyandpowernetwork TherefOre，ifjealousyitselfistherootcauseoftheproblem，thentheopen disclosureofthesystemandstandardizationofitwouIdbethewaytoresolveit､As thenetworkwouldbemadepubIic，thecontentandrangeofauthorityofthe personsinvoIvedwouldhavetoｂｅｓｅｔ、Ｉｔｗｏｕｌdbenecessarytopreparebalance shcetsoftheresultsofgmq"dLJo、Asaresult，theuseofpowerfOrpersonalprofit wouldbedifferentiatedfromuseofpowerfOrprofitofcollectiveinterestsinthe moneyandpowernetworkandwouldbeeliminatedFurther，duetothe differencesindegreeofbenefitsofｔｈｅcollectiveinterestsengageding“"cmo selectiveweedingoutwouldresultandnoncompetitivewould厚aduallybecomes standardizedintheprocessofdisclosure・Thiswouldgivehopeofselfdissoluｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｅｒｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｂasedontheexistenceofthenetworkitself

Findingawaytoresolvetheproblemoftheexistenccofthemoneyandpower networkis，however，substantialIyimpossibleinpractice・Ｔｈａｔｉｓ，thereisa tremendouslylargeimbalanceinsuppIyanddemandbetweenoneofthe beneficiariesofg“"mzo,theenterprises(moneyside),andtheotherbeneficiaries，

thcgovemments(powerside).Duetothetrulymonopolisticpositionheldbythe powersidethereisnohopeofenfOrcingdisclosuresofactivitiestodifUsepower・

TherefOre，giventhefactsofIifeinChina，theonlyfeasiblemeasurewouldbeto focusonindividualsymptomatictreatmentasmentionedaboveanddealwiththe factorsｂｅｈｉｎｄｔｈｅｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｅｒｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｔhemselves・specifically，ｔｈｅｋｅｙｗｏｕｌｄｂｅｔｈｅｅｌｉｍｉｎａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔhedualsystemofpricinganddistributionorthe economyofscarcetywhichliebehindtheexistenceofthemoneyandpower network,inadditiontobansongovernmentofficialsholdingconcurrentjobs，

ensuranceofsocialsecurityafterretirement，formulationofcompleteIawsand regulationsontheestablishmentofcompanies，toughercontrolsoncapital transactions，ａｎｄｅｓｔａｂｌｉｓｈｍｅｎｔｏｆｌａｗｓｆｏｒｃｏｍｍｅrcialtransactions・Thisisthe issuefOrthecurrentstageofChina，srefOrms，whicharebecomingstrongerin characterinthistransitoryphasewhereboththenewandoldsystemsexistsideby sideTherefOre，ｔｈｅｒｅｉｓｎｏｗａｙｒｅｍａｉｎｉｎｇｔｏｐａｓｓｏｖｅｒｔｈｅｍｏｎｅｙａｎｄｐｏｗｅｒｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｓａｎｄｗｉchedbetweenthemarketandpIanninｇｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｆＯｒｍｓ・Thefirst steptowardaneIiminationofthenetworkwouldbetheestablishmentofapolitical concensus・However,excisingofthemostfUndamentallesionwouldbeself-denial ofthemoneyandpowernetworkandwouldrequiregreaterpoliticaldecisiveness thaneverseenbefOreinChina､Withoutthis,nomatterhowmuchquieterChina，ｓｇ“"dlzoappears,itwillremainasadormantdiseasereadytorecuｒａｔａｎｙｔｉｍｅａｎｄ

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ＴＨＥＰＨＥＮｏＭＥＮＯＮＯＦＣＯＲＲＵＰＴＴＯＮｎｂｌＣＨＩＮＡ

willfOreverthreatenChina．

Notes

1） Voslenski,MichaeIS,(1980),ﾉVOme"ｋｍｍｍＪＤｊｅﾉzerlsc/ＩＣ"deKﾉassehelSoW/e“"わ"，

VerlagFritzMolden，Wien-Muncen-Zurich-Innsbruck・

Neznansky,FTidrikh（1984)，ＴｈｅＬα"dQfCrjmes,Posscv-Verlag Sweezy，PaulM（1967)，MomﾉMyRevjew

Alatas,SyedHussein（1975)，７WeSocjoﾉ０８)'ｑ／Ｃｍｗｐ"o"：ｍｈｅﾉV､皿だ,”"c"０１１，

ｃｔz“ａｓα"ｄPreve""o〃ｑ／ＣｏｒｒⅨpZio"，DeltaOrient（Pte）Ltd・

Monteiro，ＪｏｈｎＢ（1966)，ＣＯ"L`p"o"：ＣＯ""oノｑﾉﾉWαﾉﾋJdmj"な"mio"，Ｗ・＆Ｒ・

ChambersLtd

Myrdal,Gunnar(1971),Ａｓｉａ'ｚＤｍｍａＡ〃〃9皿ｊｒｙｂｚｒｏｊｈｅＰｏｙｅｌ９()ﾉｑﾉﾉVmjolls.Ａ〃

Abrjdgmemb)'Ｓｅ腕Ｓ,ＫＩ"８０／ｌｈｅＴｗｅ"[ｊα/iCelzm'Ｗ;ｉ４"ｄＳｍｄ)'，Pantheon FurtherAlatasarguesthatessentiallythereisacommonthreadrumingthroughthese

threetypesofphenomena-thesubordnationofpublicintereststoprivateaims involvingavioaltionofthenormsofdutyandwelfare，accompanicdbysecTecy，

betrayal,deceptionandacallousdisregaldfOranyconsequencesufferedbythepublic Neznanski（1984)，pp226-227・

Zafanoli,Ｗ・（1985)，，ABriefOutlineofChina,sSecondEconomy，Ａｓｉａ〃Su4rvey，

ＶｏＬＸＸＶ，Ｎｏ．

Neznanski（1985)，Ｐ227．

Hishida,Masaharu(1989),，EconomicRefbrmsinChina，,Ｃﾉzj"α'sRe/ｂｍｍｌｌＣ'fMs，

RoyalInstituteoflntemationalAffairs，London Myrdalalsorefersthisas，speedmoney，、

Polanyi，KarI（1944)，ｍｅＧｒｅａｊ刀α"S/brmα"o"，NewYork，RineharL

TherealCnumerouspapersandarticlesinChinaemphasizinｇｔｈｉｓｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，

Amongall,asthemostrepresentativediscussion,seeWu,Jianguo(1989),Ｌ""んubai jmmXjaPTgdEge"y“"ｆｇｍ"”zjc/zα"9脚jzjyoLJhLJay趾ﾉIⅢbqiXjq"X､"gXjdmgg“〃de

xjbα〃(OntheCausesofCorruptionPhenome､、;AnAnalysisoftheRelationship

betweenthelibcralizationofBourgcoisClassandCorruptionPhenomenum),Ｑ“ハム

No21

PropagandaDepartmentofCCP(1989),Sixja"gﾉﾉbe"y“"zeheZjcﾉiα"9脚izj)ﾉoⅨﾉｍａｄｅｄｍ〃（ConfrontationoftheIiberalizationofBourgeoisCIasswiththeFour FundamentalPrinciples）RenminChubanshc（People，sPublishingHouSe)．

Oiao,Shi(1989),ReporttotheNationalWorkingConferenceofDisiplineInspection．

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