From the Diffusion of Lean Production to the Hybridization Perspective : Studies on the Transfer of the Japanese Production System to the U.S.

From the Diffusion of Lean Production to the Hybridization Perspective : Studies on the Transfer of the Japanese Production System to the U.S.

著者 KUMON Hiroshi

出版者 Institute of Comparative Economic Studies, Hosei University

journal or

publication title

Journal of International Economic Studies

volume 14

page range 27‑40

year 2000‑03

URL http://doi.org/10.15002/00002168

ＦｒｏｍｔｈｅＤｉｆｈｓｉｏｎｏｆＬｅａｎＰｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎ

ｔｏｔｈｅＨｙｂｒｉｄｉｚａｔｉｏｎＰｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ：

ＳｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅＴｒａｎｓ化r

oftheJapaneseProductionSystemｔｏｔｈｅＵ.Ｓ、

Hiro二ＭＫｕｍｏｎ

Ｐｍ/tsso7utHOs`ｉＵ>ziue酒j醜FlUc"ノワq/Sociα/Ｓｃi`〃c圏Ｓ

Abstract

Ｆｏｒｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎｔｗｏｄｅｃａｄｅｓｎｏｗ,groupsofAmericanresearchershavestudiedtheJapa- neseproductio、system，inresponsetoeconomicevents・ＴｈｅＨｒ５ｔｅｖｅｎｔｗａｓａｎｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｏｆ ｉｍｐortsfiPomJapan・Thesecondwasthetrans化ｒｏｆｔｈｅＪａｐａｎｅｓｅｓｙｓｔｅｍｔｏｔｈｅＵ.Ｓ、Ameri- canresearchersdevelopedtheterm“Ieanproduction”basedontheirfYeldresearchinautomo‐

tiveplantsthroughoutthewo｢1.．TheywentonHeldresearchtotransplantsofJapanesenrms andemulatorsamongindigenousfIrms・Ｔｈｅｔｈｅｍｅｏｆｔｈｅｉｒｓｔｕｄｙｗａｓｔｈｅｔｒａnsferabilityof theJapanesesysteｍｔｏｔｈｅＵ・STheyreachedtheperspectiveofhybridizationthroughneld studiesontransplantsandemulators・Thispaperaimstotracetheevolutionaryprocessof studiesontheJapaneseproductionsystemanditstranｓｆｂｒｔｏｔｈｅＵ・SThesestudiesdefined specificfeaturesoftheproductionsystemandraisedproductiveissuesregardingorganiza-

tionaltransfeTsacrossborders、

１．Ｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎ

ThispaperaimstoidentifyresearchstudiesonthetransfbroftheJapanesepro- ductionsystemintotheＵＳＡ,andtoclarifypointsatissue・Inthel980s,theJapanese productionsystemwasseenasanalternativemodeltotraditionalmassproduction・

Itwasevaluatedasamodelfbrindustrialsurvivalandadoptedinvariousmanufac- turingsectorsaswellasintheautomobileindustry・Researchersgavetheterm“lean production，,tothesystemthatenablestheeliminationofwasteandtheproductionof highqualityproducts・Asleanproductionspread，researchersdiscoveredthatthe systemhadbeenadoptedinseveralpattemsTheJMＮＥＳＧ（JapaneseMultinational EnterpriseStudyGroup）calledthese“hybrid”factories（Abo,1994）andwestern researchersalsoacceptedtheideaintotheiranalysis（BoyeretaL,1998,Likeretal，

1999)．Theyaccumulatedempiricalstudiesbasedontheideaandevenraisedtheo‐

reticalperspectives・AstheJapanesesystemspreadmtotheUSAwithvariousfbrms ofadoption，studiesonleanproductionevolvedintothehybridizationpe応pective，

whichincludesrichempiricalresearchesaswellastheoreticalcontributions・

Firstly,someexplanationmustbegivenofAbernathy，spioneeringstudies、Ｉ、

2７

Ｆ｢ｏｍｌｈｅＤｉｍｎＳｉｏｎｏ『LeanProductiontothcHybridizatiｏｎＰｅ応peclive：

thel970s，AmericanreseamhersbegantogaininterestintheJapaneseproduction

system,ｓｅｅｉｎｇｉｔａｓａｎａｌｔｅｍａｔｉｖｅｔｏｍａｓｓｐｒoduction，whichhadbeendefeatedin internationalcompetition・Abemathystudiedthelimitationsofthemassproduction

systemfromtheviewpointofdeclininginnovatio､．Hefbcusedhisattentionon

Japan，wheretheHexibleproductionsystemhadbeendeveloped，andemphasized industrialrevivalnotinmacroeconomicpolicybutintｈｅｓｏｆｔｗａｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｍｉｃｒｏｏｒ‐

ganization,namelytheflexibleproductionsystem，Secondly,Iwillexplainthestud- iesonleanproductionaｎｄｉｔｓｔｈｅｏｒｙｂｙＷｏｍａｃｋｅｔａＬＴｈｉｒｄｌｙ，Iwillexplainthe hybridizationperspectiveonthetransflerofleanproductiontotheUnitedStates・The transferofleanproductionresultedinakindofmixingwithAmericanmethods・

Researchersdiscoveredvarioustypesofhybridpatterns，andalsomadeproductive

theoreticalstudies．

2．TurningtotheJapaneseProductionSystem

Someproductionmodelswerepresentedasalternativestothetraditionalmass

productioninthel970sandearlyl980s，ｗｈｅｎlimitationstotheviabilityofthe traditionalsystemwereappearing，ProminentpropositionsincludedtheJapanese modelbyAbernathy,ａｎｄtheltalianmodelbyPioreandSabeｌ（Abernathyeta1., 1984,PioreandSabel,1984)．Thelatterpresentedamodelofflexiblespecialization，

basedonthenetworkofflexiblesmallHrmslocatedincentralandnorthwesternItaly、

Theyclaimedthatalthoughcraftproductionandmassproductionhadcoexistedin

thel9thcentury，massproductionhadlimitedthegrowthofcraftsystems．They calledthisthe“firstindustrialdivide.”Ａｎｄｎｏｗ,ｔｈｅｙwrote,wearelivingthrough asecondindustrialdividewhichwillleadbacktothecraftmethodofproduction，

requiringanextensionofexistingregulatoryinstitutiona

Abernathyanalyzedthestagnationoftechnologicalinnovationintheautomo‐

bileindustrybylookingatproductionsystems,andproposedamethodofindustrial

revivalthroughtransfbrmationofthetraditionalsystemintoaHexiblemanufacturing

system、Hefbrmulatedamodelfbranalyzingtheevolutionaryprocessofinnovation

bothinproducttechnologyand、anufncturingprocesstechnology・Basedonthis

model,hepreciselydefmedthestagnationofinnovationintheAmericanautomobile

industry,ａｎｄｃａｌｌｅｄｆｂｒｉｔｔｏｂｅｃｈａｎｇｅｄｉｎｔｏｔheJapaneseHexiblesystem、Ｈｉｓｇｒｅａｔ ｗｏｒｋｗａｓＰ'Ｄ`"αjvhtyDi化ｍｍａｆＲｏｑｄ６ｂｃｋｒｏＩ""owmO〃ｊ〃ｒｈｅＡｍｏｍｏｂｊﾉemdzJsrry (Baltiｍｏｒｅ＆London:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress，1978)．HeclarifIed adverseinteractionsbetweeninnovationandproductivity，basedonanempirical

studyoftheFordMotorCompany・Heinvestigatedtheeight-decade-longhistoryof productandprocesstechnologyatFord，sengineplantandassemblyplant・Basedon adetailedanalysisoftechnologicaldevelopmentatthetwoproductiveunits，he

claimedthatinnovationhadstagnatedlnperiodswheninnovationwassta2mant，

productivityincreased,andwheninnovationwasconstant,productivitywassluggish

Astheproductandmanufncturingprocessesdeveloped,costdecreased，andproduct designsbecamemorestandardized・Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ，manufacturingprocessesofL fbredhigherlevelsofproductivity,andbecamedependentonspecializedequipment・

Changeofequipmentlaggedbehindmodelchangesandblockedthesmoothnessof productdevelopment・InnovationbecameincrementaLProductivityincreasescon-

2８

tinueduntiltheindustryreachedstagnation．“Statedgenerally，toachievegainsin

productivity,theremustbeattendantlossesininnovativecapability，，（Abemathy，

1978:４)．Althoughhepresentedalogicfbrstagnationininnovation，heleftan openingfbrescapmgtheviciouscircle、Ｈｅｐｒｏｐｏｓｅｄｔｈｉｓａｎｓｗｅｒｉｎｈｉｓｎｅｘｔｂook,in thefbrmofthelogicofde-maturityoftheindustry.（１）

AbernathyetaLraisedtheproblemofindustrialrevival,andfbundtheJapanese

productionsystemtobeanalternativemodeltomassproduction（AbernathyetaL，

1984)．HeshedlightontheshopHoorsystemwhereworkers，ideasandskillswere integratedintothemanagementorganization，inawaycompletelydifferentfrom Americanplants，basingthisideaonfieldresearchatJapaneseautomotiveplants、

De-maturityistheconditionwhereinnovationrequiresachangeintraditionalpro‐

ductionsystemwhichiscomposedofskills，systemsandresources・Thelogicof de-maturityfbllowsfromthisTheresilienceofanindustrytakesplaceinfburstages，

consideringthattechnologicalchangehasaninHuenceuponbothproductsandmar‐

ketsThefIrststageisthe,ＡrchitecturalPhase,,inwhichvariousproductconcepts aredevelopedfbllowingappropriateproductionsystemsaswellassuitablemarkets・

Thenexttwostagesconsistofincrementalchanges,withnoradicalchangesofprod‐

ucts,productionsystemsormarkets,andnewproductdevelopmentfbrnichemarkets・

Ｔｈｅ‘`ArchitecturalPhase,,setsthemaincourseoftheindustry，wherethebasic designoftheproducｔｉｓｓｅｔ,anditcreatesconnectionswithmarkets・Ｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｎｆｂｌ‐

ｌｏｗｅｄｂｙｔｈｅ“RegularPhase,，,whereincrementaltechnologicalchangetakesplace、

Ｔｈｅdominantdesigncontrolsthedevelopmentpathoftheindustry、Thisstageis characterizedbythestandardizationofmanufacturingprocessesandstrengthened productionsystems，Ｔｈｅｔｈｉｒｄｓｔａｇｅｉｓｃａｌｌｅｄｔｈｅ‘`NicheCreationPhase.,,Some typesofnewproductsareofYbredduringthisstage，withchangmgrelationshipsbe‐

tｗｅｅｎｐroductsandmarkets・Thesetwostagesdonotincluderadicalchangesof dominantdesignsormanufacturingsystems,andtherefbrecompetitivenessdoesnot continuefbrlongThefburth“RevolutionaryPhase,,ischaracterizedbyradical changesinproductdesignandinthecompetitiveconditionsoftheindustry,threaten- ingexistingproductio、Systems、Thede-maturityofindustrytakesplaceintheproc- essoftransfbrmationfiPomthe``RegularPhase,,，wheretheindustryisinamatured condition,ｔｏｔｈｅ“RevolutionaryPhase,,,whoseessentialfeatureistheapplicationof newtechnologytoexistingmarkets・ThusAbernathyconnectedaconceptofinnova‐

tionandproductcyclewiththefbundationoftheproductionsystem，ｂａｓｅｄｏｎｉｎ‐

depthanalysis・

ＨｅｕｓｅｓｔｈｉｓｍｏｄｅｌｔｏｅｘｐｌａｉｎｔｈｅｈｉｓtoricaldevelopmentoftheAmericanauto- mobileindustry,bypresentinginfbrmationaboutinnovationindrivetrains・Thefirst cyclebeganatthebeginningofthe20thcentury,andthesecondinthel930s/1940s・

Varioustypesofcarscoexistedduringthearchitecturalphaseintheearly20thcen- tury・Ｔｈｅｎｃａｍｅｔｈｅｒｅｇｕｌａｒｐｈａｓｅ，ｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅＭｏｄｅｌＴｗａｓｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄｂｙHenry Ford,andwherebothproductstandardizationandprocessinnovationintheflowof lineproductiondeveloped・Therevolutionaryphaseappearedwiththeintroduction oftheclosedsteelbodyinthemid-1920s・Thenewbodyincludedvariousimprove- mentsinsuspensionsystems,enginedesign,etc・Thedominantdesignofthefbllow‐

ｉｎｇ３０ｙｅａｒｓｗａｓｓｅｔｂｙｔｈｅｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔｏｆｔｈｅ“rolIinglivingrooms,,inthel930sand automatictransmissioninthel940s・Changesoccurredfromthelatel930stothelate

l950s,mainlyinvolvingincrementalreHnementsandthecreationofnichemarkets．

2９

FromtheDiHnsionofLcanProductiomtotheHybridizationPerspective：

Americanautomakersbegantopayattentiontocompactcars,duetotheincreaseof importsfromEuropeandJapan・Thentheindustrywentthroughanewroundof innovationinthel970s,becauseoftheoilshock，Itwasnecessarytomakechanges incompanyorganizationtogiveaboostｔｏｔｈｅｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｏｆｄｅ－ｍａｔurity・Neworgani- zationsrequiredmanagerstolearnnewrelationsamongtechnology，marketand productionsystem、HereAbemathyfbcusedhisattentiononJapaneseautomobile makersasleamingorganizationswhichwerCabletoconcentratetheiremployees,

energyintocompanyactivities(Abemathy,1984:107-118)．

Incidentally,theMITresearchgroup,whichdevelopedtheconceptofleanpro- ductioninl990,publishedabookofcollaborativeworkinl984（A1tshuleretaL，

1984)．Althoughthebooklookedatvariousaspectsofindustry,anddidnothavea centralunifyingtheme,ittookasenouspositiontowaldtheJapanesechallenge・As aresulttheresearchersreachedanaccurateunderstanding,whichleadthemtofbcus ontheJapaneseproductionsystemmtheirnextresearchprOject、Theyarguedthat therewerethreephasesoftransfbrmationsmtheautomotivehistory・ThefHrsttrans‐

fbrmationwasthebreakthroughbyAmericanproducers,aroundl910,fiPomcustom buildingtomassproductionThesecondoccurredinEuropeｉｎｔｈｅｌ９５０ｓ，when Europeanproducerscombinedmassproductionwithanemphasisonproductdiffbr- entiation、ThethirdbeganinJapaninthelatel960s,whenJapaneseautoproducers begantomakedramaticbreakthroughsinproductionorganization・Thecreative breakthroughinproductionsystemsandproductspromoteｄａｎｅｘｐｌｏｓｉｏｎｏｆｄｅｍａｎｄ ｉｎｔｈｅｄomesticmarket,andresultedinexportgrowthTheyhypothesizedthatthis wouldbefbllowedbyoneofthreescenarios,eachleadmgtoanewequilibrium・The firstwouldbetheconcentrationofautomobileproductiontoJapaｎｈｏｍｔｈｅＵＳＡ ａｎｄｐａｒｔｓｏｆＥｕｒｏｐｅ、Ｔｈｅｓｅｃｏｎｄｗｏｕｌｄｂｅｒａｐｉｄｌｅａｍｍｇａｎｄcostreductionsby

Westernproducer5,andaclosingofthecompetitivegapwithJapan・Thethirdwould befbrgovernmentstobacknationalproducerswithsubsidiesortraderestramts・The

secondpathwasdesirable，butproducersandlaborunionsaswellasgovernments

facedthechallengeofintroducingnewmanufncturingtechnology（A1tshuleretaL，

1984247-252).(２）

３．６`ＴｈｅＴｒｉｕｍｐｈｏｆｔｈｅＬｅａｎＰｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎＳｙｓｔｅｍ，，

WomacketaL,organizedthelntemationalMotorVehicleProgram（IMVP）ａｔ ＭＩＴｉｎｌ９８５，andperfbrmedresearchontheworld,sautomobileplants・ＪｏｈｎＦ・

Krafbik，ａｍｅｍｂｅｒｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｏｇｒａｍ，publishedthearticle，“TriumphoftheLean ProductionSystem,,,inwhichheproposedthename“leanproduction,,（Krafbik，

1988)．HewasafbrmermanufacturigengineｅｒａｔＮＵＭＭＩ，aGM-Toyotajomt

venturemCalifbrnia・HecomparedtheToyotaproductionsystemwithFordism，

termingthefbrmer“leanproduction,,andthelatter``bufTeredproduction.,,Fordism

hadmanybuffers:highinventorylevels,manyutilityworkersinpreparationfbrhigh

absenteeism,hugerepairareastocompensatefbrpoorassemblylinequality・Onthe

otherhand,Toyota,sproductionsystemwasaleanoperationwithoutwaste・Givmg

productivity,qualityandHexibilityastheprimaryindicatorsofplantperfbrmance,he

presentedtheadvantagesofleanproductionovertraditionalmassproductionplants・

Ｉｎｌ９９０,WomacketaLpublishedZ1ﾉieMtJcAj"ｅｒ/ｉａｔＣｈα"ｇＥｄｊＡｅﾘﾘﾉbrki,which

3０

madeagreatcontributiontotheacademicfieldbyshowingtheproductivityand qualityoftheworld,sautomobileplants,basedonfieldresearch・Theydemonstrated thecompetitiveadvantageoftheleanproductionovermassproduction,andclarifHed itsuniversalcharacterintermsoflocation、Ａｌsofromthehistoricalpointofview，

theyproposedthatleanproductionbespreadthroughouttheworld,presentingitas astageintheevolutionaryprocessoftheproductionsystem；namely，けomcraft productiontomassproduction,andthenleanproduction・

Ｌｅｔｕｓｌｏｏｋａｔｔｈｅｐｅｒｆｂｒｍａｎｃｅｏｆｌｅａnproduction，asthisisaveryimportant issue、Firstly,ｌｅｔｕｓｔａｋｅｔｈｅｅｘａｍｐｌｅｏｆａｌ９８６ｃｏｍｐarisonbetweenatraditional massproductionplantandaleanproductionplant・Acomparisonbetweentwo plants，ＧＭ,sFraminghamandToyota，sTakaoka，fbundthatTakaokastoodat almosttwicethelevelofFraminghaminproductivity，ａｎｄｔｈｒｅｅｔｉｍｅｓｉｎｑｕａｌｉｔｙ (WomacketaL,1990:８１)．Grossassemblyhourspercarwerel8,OatTakaokaand 407atFramingham・Theadjustedassemblyhourspercarｗｅｒｅｌ６ａｔＴａｋａｏｋａａｎｄ ３１atFramingham・Therewere45assemblydefbctsperlOOcarsatTakaoka,versus l30atFraminghamSecondly，ａｃｏｍｐａｎｓｏｎｗａｓｃａｒｒｉｅｄｏｕｔｍｌ９８９ｏｆassembly plantsinJapan,America,ａｎｄEurope・Theproductivity（hourspervehicle）wasl68 atJapaneseplantsinJapan,２１．２atJapaneseplantsinNorthAmerica,２５．１atAmeri- canplantsinNorthAmeriＣａａｎｄ３６．２atallplantsinEuropeThequality（defbcts perlOOvehicles）was600atJapaneseplantsinJapan,６５．０atJapaneseplantsin NorthAmerica，８２．３atAmericanplantsinNorthAmericaａｎｄ９７.Ｏａｔａｌｌｐｌａｎｔｓｉｎ Ｅｕｒｏｐｅ・Lookingattheregionaldifferencesinperfbrmance,ｗｅｆｉｎｄｔｈａｔｔｈｅｈｉｇｈｅｓｔ ｗａｓａｔｔｈｅＪａpaneseplantsinJapan,ｆｂｌｌｏｗｅｄｂｙtheJapaneseplantsinNorthAmer- ica,andthenAmericanplantsinNorthAmerica、ＴｈｅlowestwasattheEuropean plants・AlthoughitwassurprisingthattheJapaneseplantsinNorthAmericaper- fbrmedsimilarlytoAmericanplantsinNorthAmerica,theEuropeanplants,ｗｈｉｃｈ ｗｅｒｅｔｈｅｌｏｗｅｓｔａｍｏｎｇｔｈｅｄevelopedregions，ｗｅｒｅｓｈｏｗｎｔｏｂｅｓｔｉｌｌｕｓｉｎｇｍａｓｓ ｐｒｏduction・Intermsofplantcharacteristics,ｔｈｅｓｉｚｅｏｆｔｈｅｒｅｐａｉｒａｒｅａ（ａｓ％of assemblyspace),whichisagoodindicatorofqualitycontrolontheshopfloor,ｗａｓ ４．１atJapaneseplantsinJapan，ａｎｄ４．９atJapaneseplantsinNorthAmerica・The Japaneseplantsmthetworegionswereverysimilar・AmericanplantsinNorth Americahaｄａｆｉｇｕｒｅｏｆｌ2.9,andEuropeanplantsl44・Thosenumbersindicated diffbrencesinqualityassurancesystems・WhiletheJapaneseplantsusedasystemof securingqualityinthemanufacturingprocesses,themassproductionplantsadopted astrategyofrepairingandsecurinｇｑｕａｌｉｔｙａｔｔｈｅｆｉｎａｌｓｔａｇｅｏｆｔｈｅｍａnufacturing

process、

Thebookusedfieldresearchtodemonstratethecompetitiveadvantageoflean productionovermassproductionItalsoshowedtheuniversalcharacterofthelean productionsystemintermsoflocation・SinceJapaneseplantsinJapanandNorth Americaachievedquitesimilarperfbrmances，ａｎｄＡｍｅｒｉｃａｎｐｌａｎｔｓｉｎＮｏｒｔｈＡｍｅｒ‐

icaalsocameclose,itbecameclearthatleanproductionwasapplicableinbothｒｅ‐

gions、Plantperfbrmanceisnotdetermineｄｂｙａｎａｓｓｅｍｂｌｙｐｌａｎｔ,slocation、These theoristsmentionedthreeobstaclestothediffUsionofleanproductiomOnewasthe resistanceofwesternmassproducers;thesecondoutdatedthinkingabouttheworld economy,fbllowingtheproductlifecycleperspective;andthethirdtheinwardfbcus ofJapaneseleanproducel君,andtheirreluctancetocarryoutproductionoverseas、

WomackandJonesprovidedatheoryofleanthinking（Ｗｏｍａｃｋ＆Jones，

3１

FromtheDifTUsionofLeanProductiontotheHybridizationPerspectWe：

1996)．Althoughtheirintentwastoinstructreadersontheadoptionofleanproduc‐

tionatexistingmassproductionCompanies,Iaminterestedintheprinciplesoflean productionsystemswhichtheyproposed，TheywrotethatHenryFordsimplydiscov- e正dthespecialcaseofHowproduction,andthatTaiichiOhnodevelopedthegeneral casebyintroducmgsmall-1otproductionandquicktoolchangeovers・Ohnodevel‐

opedcontinuousflowproduction，abandoningbatchproductionandqueues・

WomackandJonesmadeadistinctionbetweenprinciplesandtechniques，ａｎｄpro‐

posedfiveprinciplesfbrleanthinking・ThefirstwastospecifyvaluesfbrspeciHc productsfromthecustomer，ｓｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ・Thevalueembodiedinproductisonly meaningfillwhenitmeetsthecustomer，sneedsataspecificpriceandaspecifictime，

Thesecondwastoidentifyavaluestream,whichisthesetofallactionsneededto bringaspecificproductthroughthethreebusinessmanagementtasks：designand engineeringoftheproduct,infbrmationmanagementofthetaskoforder-takingand delivery,andproduction,ataskofphysicaltransfbrmationByidentifyingthevalue streamfbreachproduct,onecandivideactivitiesintothreetypes:thosewhichcreate value,ｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｉｃｈｃｒｅａｔｅｎｏｖａｌｕｅｂｕｔａｒｅｃurrentlyunavoidable，ａｎｄｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｉｃｈ ｃｒｅａｔｅｎｏｖａｌｕｅａｎｄａreimmediatelyavoidable、Thethirdistoputthevalue-creating stepsintoanow，Ｔｈｅｉｒｃｌａｉｍｗａｓｔｈａｔｏｎｅｎｅｅｄｅｄｔｏｎｏtuseintuitivethinkingwith regardtoproduction,groupactivitieswithindepartmentsorfimctions,andtowolk towardperfbrmingactivitiesinbatches・Ｔｈｅｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｉｓｔｏｍａｋｅｆｌｏｗｓｏｆｖａｌｕｅ‐

creatingactivitiesfbrspecifIcproductbyredefiningtheworkoffimctions，depart‐

mentsandfIrms、Thefburthwastoallowthecustomerｔｏｐｕｌｌｔｈｅｐｒｏduct、Lean productionmakesexactlywhatthecustomerwantsjustwhenthecustomerwantsit・

Itmeansonenolongerusessalesfbrecasts,ｉｎsteadmakingwhatisactuaUyneeded、

Finally,perfectionarrives・Itrelatestocontinuousimprovement・Thefburprinciples interactwitheachother・Puttingvalueintoaflowexposeshiddenwastesinthevalue

stream・Implementingpullsystemrevealsiｍｐｅｄｉｍｅｎｔｓｔｏｆｌｏｗ，Ｔｈｅｅｌｉｍｍａｔｉｏｎｏｆ

ｗａｓｔｅｓｏｍｅｔｉｍｅｓｒequirenewprocesstechnologiesandnewproductconcepts、By definmgtheprinciples，WomackandJonespresentednewconceptsfbrleanenter‐

prisesimplementingleanprinciples（Ｗｏｍａｃｋ＆Jones,1996:15-98l

LikerexemplifHedtheapplicabilityofleanproductionnotonlytotheautomobile industrybutalsotootherindustries,presentingamplecasestudies、Ｉａｍｖｅｒｙｉｎｔｅｒ－

ｅｓｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙｏfFordMotors，whichimplementedleanproductionunderthe

nameoftheFordProductionSystem（Liker,1998)．

4．TheHybridizationPerspective

LeanproductionspreadtofbreigncountriesbywayofJapanesemultinationals，

indigenousfirms,adoptionofthesystem,andtheactivitiesofconsultants、Various studieshavefbcusedontheinternationaltransfbrofthesystem・Oneissueisthe transfbrabilityofthesystemitselfiwhatpartsal℃transfbrred,andhowThisissue relatestotheconvergenceordivergenceoftheproductionsystem・Anotherissueis thetransfbrmationoftraditionalworkorganizationandlaborrelationswiththe

introductionofleanproduction・Althoughnoobjectionsorcritiqueshaveemerged regardingtheadoptionoftechniquessuchasJITandTQC,therehavebeensharp

difYbrenceonpointsofviewregardingbothworkorganizationandlaborrelations、１ｔ

3２

seemsthatthereisasubtledifYbrenceonthosepointsbetweenAmericanandEuro- peanresearchers・Americanreseamherstendtoseethetransferabilityofthesystem

inpositivetenns,ａｎｄｔｏｐｏｉｎｔｔｏｖａｒｉｏｕｓｆｂｒｍｓｏｆａｄｏｐtionatdifTerentregionsand

Hrms・Inotherwards,theyseediversitywithinaconvergenceintoleanproduction

(Kochanetal,1997)．Ontheotherhand,Europeanresearcherstendtofbcusonthe

selectivityofintroduction,orhybridization,basedontrajectoriesofthefirm（Elgar

＆Smith,1995,Boyeretal,1998)．EvenintheJapanizationdebate,thetermhasbeen

usedasametaphor（oliver＆Wilkinson,1992)．Inaddition,therehavebeendiffbr‐

encesonthesecondpoint,namelyworkorganizationandlaborrelations・Therehave beenbothpositiveandnegativeevaluationsmtheU・SPositiveevaluationsofthe JapanｅｓｅｓｙｓｔｅｍｉｎｔｈｅＵ.Ｓ・havefbcusedonthedifferencewithtraditional Taylorism（Kenney＆Florida,1993,Adler,1993a,ｂ,MacDufYie’1992,1995,Pil＆

MacDuffie,l997lOntheotherhand,manyresearchersandparticipantsinthelabor movementhavecriticizedthesystem，andlooktothepossibilityofclearclasscon- frontation（Parker＆Slaughter,1988,Fucini＆Fucini,1990,Babson,1995,Graham，

1995,Besser,1996,RinehartetaL,1997)．InEurope,therehavebeenvoluminous reseamhesconsistingofcritiquesorskepticalviewsoftheJapanesesystem・

AlthoughtheJapanesesystemisrecognizedashavingadvantagesintermsof productivityandqualityofproductscomparedtomassproduction，itstransferinto developedcountrieshasmetwithobstacles・Itrequiresatransfbrmationoftheexist- ingworkorganizationandlaborrelations・Generallyspeaking，innovationiswel- comedintheU.Ｓ､，ｔｈｏｕｇｈｉｔｉｓｎｏｔｅａｓｙｔｏｃｈａｎｇｅｗｏｒｋｏrganizationandlabor relations・Also,AmericanmanufncturingfIrmshavetendedtochooseeithervertical integrationorpuremarkettransactionsfbrtheprocurementsofpartsandmaterials、

ＩｔｓｅｅｍｓｔｈａｔｉｔｈａｓｂｅｅｎｄｉｆＨｃｕｌｔｔｏchangesuchintegratedsystemsintolong-telm transactionsbetweenassemblersandpartsmakers、Ｉｎｆａｃｔ,accordingtoastudyon theadoptionofthesystembythebigthreeautomakersinthel990s,theyhavecaught uptoJapanesemakersintermsofreductionsinleadtimeofproductdevelopmentand implementeddesign-inbypartsmakers（Dyer,1996),theyhavenotbeenableto buildreliablerelationshipswithpartsmakers（Helper＆Sako,1995)．Alsothebig threehavelaggedbehindintheareaoftransfbrmationofworkorganizationatexist‐

ingplants（MacDufTie＆Pil,1997)．

Kenney＆F1oridalabeledtheJapanesesystem“Innovation-mediatedProduc‐

tion,，（Kenney＆Florida,1993)．TheybegantheirresearchontheHonｄａｏｆＡｍｅｒ‐

icaManufncturingplantatMarysVille,Ohio,andextendedittotheoverallquestion ofthedifYilsionoftheJapaneseproductionsystemintheU.Ｓ・Incontrasttothemass productionsystem,whichmakesadistinctionbetweenmentalandmanualworkand thuswastesworker，sknowledge，theJapaneseproductionsystemmakesuseof worker,sexperienceandknowledge・TherefbreitisconducivetoinnovationKenney

＆Floridafbundthecoreofthesystemtobetheproductionteam，inwhichwork rolesoverlapandtasksareassignedtomemberworkersandthenreallocatedamong members、Ｔｅａｍsarethebasicmechanismfbrmovingdecision-makingdowntothe shopHoorandsolvingproductionproblems・Ittransfbrmstheextractionofintellec-

tual（andmanual）laborintoasocial,collectiveprocess・Accordingly,itmakesit

possibletoharnessworkers，ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅａｓａｓｏｕｒｃｅｏｆｖａｌｕｅａｔｔｈｅpointofproduc- tion、Ｔｈｅｙｃａｌｌｔｈｅｓｅｔｅａｍｓ``selfmanagingworkteams.,,Also，Japanesemanagers andengineershaveconstantcontactwiththeshopHoor・Ｔhesocialdistances

3３

FromtheDiffUsionofLeanPmductiontothcHybridizationPerspective：

betweenmanagersandworkersarenarrow、Asaresult,firmsareabletocreatelarge

stocksofknowledgewithintheworkfb１℃es・

AccordingtotheirfieldreseamhonJapaneseaffI1iatedplants,aimedatanswer‐

ingquestionsaboutthetransferabilityandgeneralizabilityofthemodel,automotive plantshadsuccessfilUytransfbrredtｈｅｉｒｓｙｓｔｅｍｔｏｔｈｅＵ.Ｓ、Bycomparison，the experiencesofTVassemblyplantshavebeenmixed・KenneysuggeststhatTVtrans‐

plantswerebuiltbefbreJapanesemanagersbecameconfidentoftheirabilitytotrans‐

fbrthesystem（Kenney，1999)．Therefbre，Kenney＆Florida,sanswertothe questionoftransfbrabilityofthesystemwasaffinnative,butnotunequivocal，

ＭａｃＤｕｆＨｅａｎｄＰｉｌａｌｓｏｆｂｃｕｓｅｄｏｎｔｈｅworkorganization，sayingthatthelean productionhasfburspecificfeatures,alldifTerentfrommassproduction:（１）general resources,suchasgeneralpurposemachinesandmulti-skilledworkers，（２）small bufTbrsandlotsizesinplantOperation,（３）decentralizedauthority,and(4)integra- tionofconceptualactivitywithexecutionofproductiontasks（MacDufHe＆Pil，

1997：１１)．Theycalltheworkorganizationunderleanproduction“High-

InvolvementWorkPractices，，andemphasizefiveworkpractice:（１）on-linework

teams,(2)offLlinesmallgroupactivitiesorproblem-solvinggroups,(3)jobrotation，

(4)suggestionprograms,ａｎｄ（５）thedecentralizationofqualitycontroleflbrta Theyconcludedthatthehighperfbrmancerateisachievedthroughtheimplementa‐

tionofsuchworkpractices,combinedwithcorrespondinghumanresourcemanage‐

mentpoliciestosupportit・

TheycomparedautomobilemanufacturingplantslocatｅｄｉｎｔｈｅＵＳＡ，Europe，

Japan，Korea，andSouthAfiPica，assessingtheadoptionofhigh-involvementwork practicesaswellasrelatedhumanresourcesmanagementpolicies、Theyconcluded thatitispossibletoseeatrendofconvergencetowardtheadoptionofsuchwork practicesacrossrCgions・Ｏｎｔｈｅｏtherhand,theyfbundadivergenceintheadoption

ofthepracticesacrossandwithincompanies、TheftlctorswhichafTectedthediffiJ-

sionanddivergenceofleanproductionwereincreasedinternationalcompetition，

manager,schoices，laborunion，schoices，andgovernmentpolicy・Theyidentified fburdistinctgroups:stableandlean（Japanese-ownedplants),rapidmovementto lean(Europeanandnew-entrantplants),adherencetotraditions(ｕｓ.-ownedplants inNorthAmerica),andhybrids（assortedplantsfi･omvariouscountries)．

AdleranalyzedworkorganizationatJapanese-afTiliatedautomotiveplants,from

theviewpointoforganizationallearning(Adler,1993a,1993b)．Hiscontributionwas

toclarifythefnctthatworkersontheshopfloorcreateworkstandardsbythemselves，

andhepresentedanewassessmentofTaylorismandbureaucracybypropoｓｍｇｔｈｅ

ｔｅｒｍ``DemocraticTaylorism,,，ａｎｄ``EnablingBureaucracy.，,Hefbcusedhisatten‐

tionontheproductionsystem,andparticularlytheworkOrganization,ａｔＮＵＭＭＬ ａｊｏｉｎｔｖｅｎｔｕｒｅｏｆＧＭａｎｄＴｏｙotaMotor,anddiscoveredimportantfactsthrough interviewswiththeemployees，NonｅｓａｉｄｔｈｅｙｗａｎｔｅｄｔｏｇｏｂａｃｋｔｏｔｈｅＧＭ‐

Fremontdays、EvencriticsassociatedwiththePeople,sCaucus，whoaremainly dissidentswhoopposeharmoniouslaborrelations，weregeneraUyinfavorofthe system・Workerswereparticipatingindeflningtheworkstandardsbyanalyzing

everydaywork・Helisteddistinctionsintermsofthesettingofworkstandardsbe‐

tweenNUMMIandtraditionalmassproductionplants・Underthetraditionalplants，

IndustrialEngineerswhoarenotclosetotheworkmaketheworkstandarｄＴｈｅｎ

ｔｈｅｌＥｓｔａｋｅｔｈｅｓｅｓｔａｎｄａｒｄｔｏthefbremanThefbremaninturnredesignsthetask

3４

ｔｏｈｉｓｏｗｎｌｉｋｉｎｇ,andpresentsthetaskdesigntotheWorkers、Theworkers,finally，

perfbrmthetaskTheworkerscannotimprovetheprocess・Ｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ，

workersmaketheirownstandardsatNUMMLThissystemcontributestoimprove-

mentsinsafety,theenhancementofmotivation,andhighquality・Heconcludedtbat theproblemofscientificmanagementdoesnotlieintheuseofthetechniquesbutin thewaｙｔｈｅｙａｒｅｍａｄｅＴｈｅｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｉｓｔｈａｔｌＥsmakethestandardandcompelthe

workerstofbllowthem・Conversely,asworkersatNUMMIhavethebestobjective understandingofthebestwaytodothejob,theycanarguewithmanagementover standards・Standardizedworkgivesworkerstherighttosetuptheirownjobs､Work-

ersthusgainpoweragainstmanagers.(3)

Adlerproposedanewwayofassessingbureaucracybasedonthesamefielｄｒｅ‐

searchHedefinedthe“enablingbureaucracy.,,ＡｌｔｈｏｕｇｈＮＵＭＭＩｆb1malizedbu- reaucraticOrganization,itputimportanceonconsensusdecision-makingandonmiddle managersexercisingtheirauthoritytostimulateandsupportimprovementactivities・

Ｗｈｅｎbureaucracytakesanenablingfbrm,thisdoesnotharmcommitment,Hexibility andinnovation（Adler＆Borys,1996)．ＨｅｔｈｅｎｃｏｍｐａｒｅｄＮＵＭＭＩｗｉｔｈＴＭＭＫ

(ToyotaMotorManufacturingKentucky)intermsoftheworkpracticesimplemented，

andproposedalearningeffectaswellasahybridperspective・Ａｌthoughbothplants hassimilaritiesinthedomainofworkorganization，individualandorganizational learning，ａｎｄｈumanresourceadministration，ＴＭＭＫｓｈｏｗｅｄｓｏｍｅｗｈａｔｌｅｓｓｏｆａ ＴｏｙｏｔａｉｎＨｕｅｎｃｅｔｈａｎＮＵＭＭＩｉｎｔｈｅｄｏｍａｉｎｏfemploymentrelations・TMMKchose moreofaunion-substituｔｉｏｎｍｏｄｅｌｔｈａｎＮＵＭＭＬＴＭＭＫ，whichwasconstructed laterthanNUＭＭＩ，developedadifTerenthybridpatterｎｆｉＦｏｍＮＵＭＭＬＷｈｅｎｉｔ ｅｎｔｅｒｅｄｔｈｅＵ.Ｓ，ToyotasoughtwaysofworkingwithtｈｅＵＡＷａｔＮＵＭＭＩ，and choseaprovenefYbctiveunion-substitutionpolicyatTMMK･Heconcludedthat parentcompaniesinterprettbeiroverseasexpansionsasanorganizationallearning

processandadoptdifYbrentchoicesatthenewerplants（Adler,1999).(4)

TheUniversityofMichigan,sJapanTechnologyManagementProgramstudied thetransfbroftheJapanesemanagementsystemintotheUSA、ＬｉｋｅｒｅｔａＬ,Ｒｅｍａｄｅ

ｉ〃Ａｍｅｒｉａｚ:Ｔ７ｚｚ"qpm"""ｇα"ｄ刀､"Vb7mi"gJtZpα"eseMz"αgUme"tSysrems（ＮＹ：

Oxfbrd,1999),adoptedtheterm“hybrid"asacommonpointofviewfbrthetransfbr oftheJapaneseManagementSysｔｅｍｓｔｏｔｈｅＵ.Ｓ、Ｔｈｅｙｕｓｅｄｔｈｅｔｅｒｍ“Japanese ManagementSystem,，torefertotheproductionsystemsandcorporatemanagement practicesfbundinJapanesefirms・ThisisbecausesuccessfUlJapanesｅＨｒｍｓｄonot alwaysfbUoweverycontentoftheToyotaProductionSystem,andmayhavebroader commonmanagementsystems・TheyproposedalayeredmodelofJapanesemanage‐

mentsystems,composedoffburaspects：shop-Hoorproductionsystems，ftlctoryor- ganization＆management,corporatesystems,ａｎｄｉｎstitutionalenvironment･Layer one，theshopfloorproductionsystem，encompasseshardtechnologiesasweUas organizationaltechnologies（workpractices,standardizedworksheets,built-inqual- ity,continuousimprovements,andsofbrth)．Layertwo,factoryorganizationand management，includeshumanresourcepractices，suppIierrelations，organizational culture，communication，andlearningprocess・Layerthree，thecorporatesystem，

includesthebusinessandmanagementsystem,supportstafEandunionstructure・

Finally，１ayerfbur,theinstitutionalenvironmentiseverythingoutsidethecorporate system・Thisincludesconsumerprefbrences，thelegalandregulatoryenvironment，

educationsystem,andnationalcultureandvalues、Theyhypothesizethatitiseasiest

3５

ＦｒｏｍｔｈｅＤｉｍｌｓｉｏｎｏ「LeanProductiontotheHybridizationPcrspcctive：

totransfbrshopfloorproductionSystems，somewhatmorediffIculttotransfbrthe

widerfactoryorganization,andfarmoredifHculttotransfertheinstitutionallinkages

whichsupportthecorporatesystem

Theyputfbrwardthreetheoreticalperspectivesonhybridizationinthecaseof theinternationaldiffilsionoftheJapanesemanagementsystem，Theysawthese perspectivesascomplementary・ThefirstistheinnovationdifTUsionperspective，

meaningthatthetransferofmanagementsystemsissimilartothedifTiJsionofsocial andtechnicalinnovations、AccordingtoRogers，whosummarizedstudiesonthe difTUsionofinnovations,innovationsaremoreeasilydifTUsediftheyhavethefbIlow‐

ingfeatures:highrelativeadvantage,highcompatibilitywithexistingpractices，low intrinsiccomplexity,ｈｉｇｈtrialabilityandobservability（Rogers，1983)．Butthe JapanesemanagementsystemhasthreefactorsthatmakediffmsionmoredifTicult・

Firstly,itisaradicaldeparturefiDmAmericanmanufacturingmanagement、This radicalnessispartoftheadvantageoftheJapanesesystem,butitreducesitscompati- bilitywithexistingpractices、Secondly,thesystematiccharacterofJapanesemanage‐

mentreducesitscompatibilitywithexistingpractices，reducestrialability，andadds complexity・Finally,thetacitnessoftheknowledgeembeddedintheJapaneseman‐

agementsystemsreducesitstrialabilityandobservability、Ｔｈｅｓｅｃｏｎｄｉｓａ ｓｔructuralistperspective・Inthisperspective，ｔｈｅｒｏｌｅｏｆ“context”isreferredto・

Proponentsofthisperspectiveseefburtypesoffbrceswhichshapetheinternational difYUsionofthesystem:competitionamongfirms,theintemationaldivisionoflabor orparent-subsidiaryrelations,specifYcsocietiesorsocietalefiects,andspecificcom‐

paniesandplants・Theinteractionbetweenthesefbrcescreatesacomplexdynamic・

Thus,thetransferofthesystemproduceshybridpatterns・Thethirdisanemergent perspectiveThetransferoftheJapanesemanagementsystemcannotbedesigned,ｂｕｔ ｉｓｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｔｉｎｔｈｅｓｅｎｓｅｏｆａｎｅｖｏｌｕtionaryviewofthefirm・Eventhemanagement systemisonlypartlytheresultofplanning,andismoreoftentheresultofopportun- isticexperimentalfbrmsoflearning・Ｉｔｉｓｄｉｆｆｉｃｕｌｔｔｏｉｍａｇｉｎｅｈｏｗｓｕｃｈｓystemscan bedeliberatelytrans化rred、Giventhecomplexity,interconnectedness，andtacitness ofsuchsystems,theyareimperfiect・Recipientorganizationshavetheirownunder- standingsofthesystem・Interactionbetweensendersandrecipientsgeneratenew interpretationsofwhatisbeingtransfbrred,whatisnotbeingtransfbrred，andhow thetransferisprogressing・Consideringthesefactors,theprocessoftransfbrseemsto

beoneofemergence（LikeretaL,1999:3-35).(５）

5．ＣｏｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇＲｅｍａｒｋｓ

LookingbackonthedevelopmentofstudiesregardingthetransfbrofthｅＪａｐａ－

ｎｅｓｅｓｙｓｔｅｍｔｏｔｈｅＵＳＡ,AbernathyfirstputfbrwardtheJapanesemodelasanalter-

nativetomassproduction，basedonahypothesisofde-maturityrelyingonthe perspectiveofdynamicin､ovationSecondcametheLeanProductionperspective，

bytheInternationalMotorVehicleＰｒｏｇｒａｍａｔＭＩＴ、ＷｏｍａｃｋｅｔａＬ，clarifiedthe competitiveadvantagesofleanproductionovermassproduction，andtheyclaimed thatthesystemwastransfbrableTheyalsofbrmulatedatheoryofleanproduction，

separatedfromthetechniquesormethods，whichwasusefillfbrunderstandingthe contentofthesystem・Laterstudieswentontothehybridizationperspective．

3６

Researcherswhowerelookingintotheorganizationalaspectsofthesystemfbcused onworkorganizationandhumanresourcesmanagementpolicy・KenneyandFlorida investigatedtheintegrationofmanua1andmentalｗｏｒｋｏｎｔｈｅｓｈｏｐｆｌｏｏｒ，ａｎｄpro‐

posedtheterm“innovation-mediatedproduction.,,ＴheydiscoveredthatdifYerent hybridpatternswereseenatdifTerentautomobileandelectricplants・MacDufHeand Pilproposedthetelm“high-involvementworkpractices,'ａｎｄｆｂｕｎｄａｔｒｅｎｄｏｆｃｏｎ‐

vergencetowardleanproductioninvariousregionsasweUasdivergentpracticesat difYierentfIrmsandplants・Adlerputgreatimportanceintohavingworkersmake workstandardsontheshopHoor,andcalledthis“democraticTaylorism,,ａｎｄ``ena‐

blingbureaucracy.”Hewrotethatenablingbureaucracydoesnotcutcommitment andinnovationHealsopointedoutdifYerentfbrmsofhybridizationattwoToyota plants・ＬｉｋｅｒｅｔａＬ，demonstratedthetransferabilityoftheJapanesemanagement systemtotheUSA，andclariHedthatthetransfbrredmanagementsystemswere hybridTheyalsoattemptedtofbrmulatetheoreticalperspectivestoanalyzethe hybridizationofthesysteminenvironmentsdifTerentfromthatofthehomecountry．

Notes

（１）Utterbackexplainedthelbrmationofinnovationdynamics（Utterback,1994)．

（２）FriedmanproposedrevivingtheAmericanautomobileindust｢ybyadoptingthe JapanesesystemHeｕｓｅｄｔｈｅｔｅｒｍ“Japanization,,，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓａｎｅｘｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅＵ.Ｓ・

setting（Friedman,1983)．SchonbergerindicatedthattheJapanesep｢oductionsystem，

composedoftwofnctors,ＪＩＴａｎｄＴＱＣ,wastransfbrabletotheUS.（Schonberger，

1982)．

（３）Aflewsupplementarycommentsareneededhere・AdlerexplainedthatatNUMMI theworkersmadetheworkstandardsdirectly、However，accordingｔｏｍｙｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ ｃａｒｒｉｅｄｏｕｔｉｎＭａｙｌ９96,ｔｈｅsituationisslightIydiffbrent・Japanesemanagerstoldme thatproductionworkersdonotmaketheworkstandar｡s・Bothteamleademsandgroup leadersａｒｅｉｎｃｈａｒｇｅｏ「makingthestandards・However,whenanewmodelislaunched，

apilotteamcomposedofproductionworkersselectedfromtheshopnoorcreatethe standardlnthiscase，productionworkersmakeworkstandardstogetherwithteam leadersandgroupIeaders，ItisimportantfbTworkersthemselvestounderstandtheir jobcontents・AseachworkerhasuniquecharacteristicsandadifY1erentbodysizefrom

others,ｈｅ/shemightbetemptedtoperfbrmtheworkinhis/herownway・Thiscould causeobstaclestojobrotationandqualityproblems・Therefbre,thestandardizationof workisneeded,andisimplementedthroughdiscussionswithintheteams、Iwasgiven nearlythesameexplanationbyJapanesemanagersatotherJapaneseplants・Therewas onecasewhichHtAdler，sexplanation,namelytheHondaofAmericaManufacturing plantinMarysville，Ohio，ｗhereworkersmadetheworkstandards・Managerssug‐

gestedthattheyusepicturestomakcthetaskeasier・Whatisimportantisnotwhether p｢oductionworkersmaketheworkstandarddirectlyWhentheJapaneseproduction systemisadopted,dif化rentprocedurecanbeinstitutionalizedThestandardizationof workenhancesworkers,abilitytolearnandgivesthempowertocontro］ｗｏｒｋｏｎｔｈｅ ｓｈｏｐｆｌｏｏｒ．

（４）Ofcourse,noteveryresearcherhadpositiveevaluationsoftheJapanesesystem、Ｆｏｒ example,Babson,Steveed.,Ｌｅα〃ﾘｲﾉb戒：Ｅ'?Zpowrme"Ｚα"ｄＥｘｐﾉOjm1io〃ｉ〃ＺﾉｶＣＧﾉb6Qノ ＡｍｏＩ>zdHsZ〃(Michigan:ＷayneStateUniversityPress,1995）presentedsharplydiffer- entviｅｗｓｏｎｔｈｅｓｙｓｔｅｍ:empowermentandexploitation,ｃｏｍｍｉｔｍｅｎｔａｎｄｈｉｇｈｉｎｔｅＬ ｓｉｔｙｏfworkCriticssometimesomerinterestingissues．

3７

FromtheDinUsionorLeanProduclioultoIhcl-IybridizatioI1Pc応pcctivc：

（５）Westneypresentedpersuasiveviewpointlbrunderstandingcross-societalorganiza‐

tionaltrans化rs,byproposingthreegeneralorganizationalperspectives・Heidentifled themfi｢omorganization-environmentalrelations、Thethreeperspectiveswere“strategic design,，，“socialconstruct,，,ａｎｄ``politicalperspective.”Hemadepredictionsbasedon eachperspectiveonthelogicoftransfbrandhybridizationAIthoughlfbundhis explanationsvelyinteresting,Iwouldliketoonlymentiononeaspectofhybridization・

Helookedatthreedriversofhybridization:theinteractionoffbreignandlocalpatterns

withintheorganization，imper化ctinfbrmation，andtheinteractionbetweenintemal patternsandkeyelementsoftheenvironment・Withregardtotheinteractionbetween fbrcignandlocalpatte｢ns,行omthestrategicdesignperspectWe，hybridizationoccurs

becauseofalackofconfbrmitybetweenfbreignand1ocalpatterns・Therearecompet‐

ingpullsbetweentheparento｢ganizationalmodelandprevailingloca1modeIs・From

thesocialconstructperspective,thetrans化rofsystemsacrossbordemsalwaysproduces

somethingdifYbrentinthenewsettingBecausethe価｢eignpatternsareperceivedand interpreteddifherentlythanathome,hybridizationisarule，Reinterpretationleadsto changesinhowitactuaUyoperates、Fromthepoliticalperspective,thecombinationof lbreignandlocalpatternsconstitutesapotentialarenafb「contendinginterests、ＰＣｒ example,expatriatesmanagersnndthemselvesfhcingadilemma・Theyhaveasource ofpowerderivedfmmtheirknowledgeortheparentcompany，butcanonlyachieve successintheirpositionsirlocalemp]oyeesaccepttheirpositionandagendaHybridi- zationstrategiesgivｅａｎａｎｓｗｅｒｔｏｔｈｉｓｄｉｌｅｍｍａ、Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｗａｙ，heproposedpersuasive theoreticalperspectivesonhybridization（Westney,1999)．

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