Cultural Perspectives on the Functional Traditions of Japanese Higher Education 利用統計を見る

Cultural Perspectives on the Functional

Traditions of Japanese Higher Education

著者

Makino Misao, Kempner Ken

雑誌名

国際地域学研究

号

4

ページ

209-228

発行年

2001-03

URL

http://id.nii.ac.jp/1060/00003879/

Creative Commons : 表示 - 非営利 - 改変禁止 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.ja

CulturalPerspectivesontheFunctionalTraditions

ofJapaneseHigherEducation

MisaoMAKINO ＊withKenKEMPNER ＊＊ INTRODUCTION Similartothe1950swhentheUnitedStatesbecametheleaderofthefreeworld. theJapanesearenowlearninghowtoassumetheirroleastheglobaleconomic leader.Withtheburstofthe “bubbleeconomy",however.government,business,andeducationalleadersarereexaminingwhatJapan'sresponsibilitiesshouldbeastheforemosteconomicworldpower.ThechangingworldorderiscausingtheJapanesetoconsiderhowpreparedtheirsocial,economic.andeducationalsystemsaretotakethecountryintothenextcentury.Whatrolehighereducation.inparticular,istoplayinpreparingJapananditspeopleforitsfutureglobal.economic.andsocialresponsibilitiesisnotabundantlyclear.however.norisitwellstudied(Amano1986).Inthispaperweconsider,specifically,howJapaneseculturehasshapedthecontemporarystructureofhighereducationandtheproblemsthisstructureposesforJapan'sgloballeadership.Wequestion,aswell,howadequatethemodernisticstructureofJapan'shighereducationistoprepareitscitizensforthefuturetheywillfaceinthecomingcentury.Webeginourdiscussion,first,byaddressingthetheoriesofmodernismandpostmodernismandtheirrelevancetounderstandinganation'ssystemofhighereducation.Ne χt,weconsiderthemoderniststructureofJapanesehighereducationandtheproblemsitposesforJapan'sfuturedevelopment.InourassessmentofJapaneseeducationweusethepostmodernconceptof “cognitivemapping"tohelpunderstandtherolecultureplaysindefiningtheplaceofhighereducationincontemporaryJapanesesociety.Third,wepresentacriticalanalysisofthecurrentreformeffortsinJapaneseeducationandoffersomecomparativeperspectivesonthe ・FacultyofRegionalDevelopmentStudies,ToyoUniversit)',Japan ゛Professor,CollegeofEducation,theUniversityofOregon

210 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2001) futureofJapan'shighereducation.Weconcludethispaperbyconsideringthe problemsinherentinmodernisticchangeandtheimplicationsforthefuturedevel-opmentofJapanesehighereducation. MODERNANDPOSTMODERNTHEORIES Traditionally,inJapan,formaleducationservedtoeducateeithertheruling samuraiorthecommonpeople.Thesamuraiwereeducatedinthehankoschools whilethecommonpeoplewereschooledintheterakoya.Thishistoricaldifferenti-ationprovidedafunctionaldistinctionbetweenthosewhowouldleadthecountry andthosewhowouldserveit. ThisdifferentiationofeducationwascertainlynotlimitedtohistoricJapan,as mostotherfeudalsocietiesseparatedtheeducationoftheleadersandnoblesfrom thatofthecommonpeople 。Asmoredemocraticsocietiesemerged,however,educationbecameacentralcomponentinthemaintenanceofafreeandopensociety.Eveninthesedemocraticsocieties,educationtypicallyfollowedafunctionalandmodernisticstrategywherestudentswereeducatedeithertobecompetentcitizensortrainedtoreproducetheexistingworkforce(CarnoyandLevin1985).Themodernisticpremiseofsucheducationisbasedonthebeliefinrationalityandreasonthatscienceprovidesthesolutionsforallsocial,cultural,andeconomicproblems.Advocatesofthismodernistperspectiveassumetechnologicalprogressislinearandinherentlygood.Thesuccessorfailureofanation'sdevelopmentismorecomplexthansimplytheimplementationofmodernisticprinciplesofscienceandtechnology.Theglobalcontextofeconomic,political,social,andeconomicrelationshasgrownsocomplexsinceWorldWarITthatJameson(1988,359)concludeswearenolongerintheeraofmodernism, “weareinsomethingelse."This “somethingelse"Jamesonproposesis “postmodernism",inpart,becauseofthefailureofmodernismtoaccountforthenotalwaysrationaldevelopmentandlinearprogressofglobalchange.Howthenarewetounderstandandexplainthispostmodernworld?Jamesonoffers “cognitivemapping"asonesolutiontounderstandingsocialrealitythatnolongeroffersthemodernist'scoordinates.Jameson'sconceptionofcognitivemappingisderivedfromKevinLynch's(1960)studywhereheaskedindividualstodrawmapsoftheircitiesfrommemory.Lynchfoundthatindividualscarryaround

“maps"intheirheadsofthephysicalspaceinwhichtheyliveandoperate. Althoughthesemapsdidnotalwaysrepresenttheactualorderofthecity,individ-ualsweretypicallyabletodrawmapsthatrepresentedwhatwasmostimportantor functionalforthemintheircities.Thesementalmapsdifferedfromindividualto individual,however,basedontheiruseofthecityandtheguidinggeographicor constructedmarkers(rivers,hills.monuments.distinctivebuildings)thatenabled peopletonegotiatetheirmovementwithinthecity.Jamesonsuggeststhatthe mentalmapsofcityspacethatLynchexploredareanalogoustothementalmapsof thesocialandculturalspacewecarryaroundinourheads 。FromJameson'spostmodernperspectivewecanunderstandcognitivemapsasuniquelypersonalguidestothecomplexandbewilderingarrayofsocialrealities. “Socialtotality"forJamesonisdetermined,therefore,bythecoexistenceandinteractionofallindividuarssubjectivecognitivemaps.Althoughpostmodernismcanoffernocertainwaytoidentifyindividualrealityorchartanindividual'scognitivemap,postmodernismdoesaccountfortheeffectofcultureoncollectivesocialinteraction.Understandingandidentifyingthiscollectiveinteractionistheculturaleffectmodernistsaresodeficientinrecognizing.Postmodernists'recogni-tionofmultidimensionalityenablesamorein-depthunderstandingofhowindivid-ualconsciousnessorcognitivemapscollectivelyformcultureandbehavior.Ratherthanassumingthereisaninherentorknowabletruth.postmodernistsrecognizethatknowledgeandtrutharesocialconstructions.Postmodernistsrejectthemodernist “illusionthatdisengagementandobjectificationarecentraltotheconstructionofknowledge"(Belenky,Clinch,Goldberger,andTarule,1986,18).Thepostmodernperspectiveunderstandsthatscientificknowledgeisasocialconstruction. “ratherthansimplyaprocessofdiscoveryoffactswaitingforthecleverestscientiststofindthem"(Kempner,1992,70) 。Postmoderninterpretationsarehelpfulnotonlyinidentifyingtheprocessofknowledgeconstructionbutalsoinaidingourunderstandingofthenonlinearprocessofnationaldevelopment.Becauseeachnation'sdevelopmentisdependentuponthelargerglobalcontext.modernisticinterpretationsareinsufficienttoexplaintherolecultureplaysinsuchdevelopment.Ratherthanassumingchangeislinearandprogressive,postmodernistslooktoculture.history,andindividualhumanagencytoexplaindevelopmentalprocessesthatarenotnecessarilyrational.Inthispaperweareguidedbypostmoderncriticismsinoursearchtounder-standthecapacityofJapan'scurrentsystemofhighereducationtoserveitsfuture

212 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(200 【】 social,economic,andeducationalneeds.Apostmodernperspectiveisparticularly helpfulforunderstandingtherolehighereducationplaysinacountry'ssocialand economicdevelopment.because,asGiroux(1992,56)observes.postmodernism “notonlychallengestheformandcontentofdominantmodelsofknowledge.butitalsoproducesnewformsofknowledge …unrepresentableinthedominantdiscoursesoftheWesterncanon."Becausehighereducationinstitutionsinmostdemocraticsocietiesaretheprincipallocationwhereknowledgeisconstructedanddisseminat-ed,proponentsofpostmodernismtakeseriouslytheeffectsofculture,power.andpoliticsonthisconstructionofknowledge.Hereintheconceptofcognitivemappingisparticularlyhelpfulinidentifyingtherolehighereducationanditsfacultyplayintheintellectualdevelopmentofstudentsandhelpingstudentslocatetheirplacewithinsociety 。InourinvestigationoftheculturalinfluencesonJapanesehighereducationwefollowCarnoyandSamoffs(1990,3)premisethat: “Analyzingeducation …isanimportantwaytounderstandlargereconomicandpoliticalchange.orthelackofit."WebelievethataculturalperspectiveiscentraltounderstandingtheplaceofhighereducationinJapanesesocietyand,consequentially,theeffecthighereduca-tionhasonthedevelopmentofstudents'cognitivemapsandthesocial,economic.andscientificknowledgeconstructedinJapan.Webelieve.further,thatmoderni-zationtheorydoesnotprovideaneffectivemodeltounderstandandguideeduca-tionalchangebecauseitsupposeslinearprogressandoffersarationalisticperspec-tivethatisincapableofunderstandingthecomplexityandchaosofthelargerculturalandglobalcontext.Furthermore,modernismfailstoaccountfortheculturalinfluencesandindividualcircumstancesofanation'suniquedevelopment.InthenextsectionofthischapterwefocusspecificallyontheseuniqueculturalcircumstancesofJapan'snationaldevelopmentandhowculturedefinesboththepurposeandstructureofJapan'sinstitutionsofhighereducation. THEMODERNISTSTRUCTUREOFJAPANESEEDUCATION InordertounderstandtheinfluencesofcultureonJapanesehighereducation webeginwithabriefoverviewofthehistoricalfoundationsofeducation.Next,we considerthefunctioncontemporaryelementaryandsecondaryeducationhavein preparingstudentsforthewell-known “examinationhell"theyface.Weaddress,aswell,theroleofthemother,teacher,andjuku(cramschool ）duringthese

formativeeducationyears.Followingourbriefoverviewofelementaryandsecon-daryeducationwediscusshighereducationandboththesortingfunctionithasin Japanesesocietyanditsfunctioninplacingstudentswithinbusinessandgovern-ment,or “Japan,Inc.",asitisoftencalled.WeconcludeourdiscussionofthemoderniststructurebysummarizingthemajorproblemsofcontemporaryJapaneseeducation. HistoricalAntecedentsof ≒JapaneseEducationThefoundationalelementofformalJapaneseeducation.aswehavenoted.wasadualsystemforthesamuraileadershipandthecommonpeople.Thisdistinctionremainedintactthroughoutthe “Edo"periodundertheTokugawaShogunateuntiltheMeijiRestorationin1868.TheMeijierausheredintheopeningofJapantotheWesternor “modern"worldinitssocialandcommercialrelations.TheMeijieraalsoestablishedthe “FirstEducationalReform"thatabolishedthedualsystemofthehankoandtemkoyaschools(Tokutake1988andReischauer1988).Althoughthedualstructurewaseliminated.theunderlyingdistinctionbetweentheelitesamuraiandcommonersremainsanimplicitpartofthecontemporaryJapaneseeducationalsystem.TheMeijiRestorationhadaprofoundimpactonthetraditionallyisolationistJapanesesociety.Japan,ofcourse,eventuallygrewintoaworldmilitarypowerthatculminatedinitsdefeatinWorldWarII.FollowingJapan'ssurrenderin1945theAlliedOccupationforcessetaboutrestructuringthepolitical,economic,andeducationalsystemsofJapan.Althoughtheusphilosophyofequaleducationalopportunitywasthebasisforeducationalreform,thisperspectivehasevolvedwithinthemandatesofcontemporaryJapaneseculture.Whereasmodernistinterpreta-tionsofeducationalreformmightassumeJapan'ssystemofeducation “modernized"bybecomingWestern,eventhesimplestanalysisofcontemporaryJapaneseeduca-tiondisplaysvastculturaldifferencesbetweenthesystemthatevolvedandtheussystemitemulated 。Outwardly,Japaneseeducationwithits6-3-3-4structure(elementary,juniorhigh,highschoolandcollege,respectively)appearssimilartotheuseducationalsystem.Onfurtherexamination,however,theremnantsofthedualsystemareevidentinthestricthierarchye χtendingfrompre-schooltothecollegiatelevel.WhatisimportanttounderstandhereisnotsimplythatJapanadoptedtheusmodelofeducation,buthowJapanesecultureaffectedthisadoptiontofitthe

214 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2001) historical,social,andculturalcircumstancesofJapan 。Whereas “educationisoneofthemajorfactorsthatmadeitpossibleforJapantofoundamodernstateinsuchashortperiodoftime" （Tokutake1988,11 ）,thissamesystemmaynotbesoeffectiveinmovingJapanintothenextcentury.Whatwasfunctionalandmodernforthemid-twentiethcenturymaynotbemodernenoughforthenewageofthetwenty-firstcentury.WequestionifJapancanaffordtobeonlymoderninitseducationalsystem.DoesnottheeducationalsystemneedtobepostmoderntofosterthedevelopmentofstudentswhowillbebetterpreparedtofacetheeconomicandsocialchangesnowdemandedofJapanasanewworldleader? ElementaryandSecondary タEducationBecausedetailedexplanationsofthesizeandstructureoftheJapanesesystemofeducationarewidelyavailableelsewhere,ourfocushereisontheunderlyingmeaningofthiscontemporarysystem,notitsspecificdemographicstructure.WhereasthebasicfunctionofJapaneseeducationisforthefulldevelopmentoftheindividual(ThomasandPostlewaite1983),wecharacterizecontemporaryeducationinJapanashighlyfunctional.AlthoughthedistancefromthetopofJapanesecivilsocietytothebottomisnotasgreatasinmanydevelopingcountry,orevenadevelopedcountrysuchastheus,Japanesesocietyisstillhighlydifferentiated.Ifachilddoesnotorcannotbegininthe “right"preschool,accesstotheelitelevelsofhighereducationisnotlikely.Inpreviousresearch(KempnerandMakino1993)werelatedastorywhereathree-yearoldchildwasdeniedentrancetoapreschoolbecauseshedidnothavetheappropriatereferences.Similarly,Beau-champ(1991)retellsastoryofDore's(1976)whereapreschooldecidedtotestthemothers,sinceitcouldnotdeviseaneffectiveentranceexaminationforitstwo-yearoldapplicants.TrackingbeginsattheonsetofeducationforJapanesechildrenwheremeritplaysonlyapartinachild'saccesstothebestemploymentingovernmentorbusiness.AlthoughtheemphasisontestingwouldseeminglyassureameritocraticsysteminJapan,themeritocracybeginsafterthestudenthasgainedentrancetotheappropriatepre-schoolsandelementaryschools.Withoutaccesstothefinestschools,financialsupporttoattendthebestjukus(examinationcramschools),anddailyeducationalassistanceathomefromthemother.astudentisnotlikelytosucceedatthehigherlevelsofeducation.

PerhapsoneofthestrongestculturalcomponentsoftheJapaneseeducational systemisthekvoikumama,the “educationmama."InJapanesehouseholdsthemotherassumesresponsibilityfortutoringandguidingthechildrenintheirdailystudies.Asstudentsadvanceinschoolthemothertypicallyadvanceswiththemtoassistwiththeactualhomeworkandthemanagementofdailyassignments.Awomantypicallybecomeswelleducatedtoserveherchildren,notnecessarilyforherownprofessionaladvancement.InadditiontotheuniquerolethemotherplaysinJapaneseeducation,theteachertoohasadifferentstatusthaninmostothercountries.Legislationinthe1980splacedteacherssalariesamongthehighestofallpublicemployeesinJapan(Tokutake1988).ObediencetomastersandteachersisatraditionalculturalcomponentofJapanesesociety.Zenphilosophyexpects “absolutesubordinationofaterriblyhardworkingstudenttoastrictbutultimatelylovingteacher"(Frost1991,296).TeachersinJapanhavestatusinaccordwiththeimportanceplacedoneducationingeneral.Again,educationisattributedbymanyindividualsasthereasonJapanwasabletorisesoquicklytoglobaldominanceintheeconomicmarketplace.AlthoughJapan'seducationalsystemhasbeenquitesuccessfultothepresent,isitnowcapableoffulfillingJapan'ssocialandeconomicneedsforthecomingcentury? HigherEducation WhereastheinfrastructureoftheJapaneseelementaryandsecondarysystemsis quiterigorous,thesystemofhighereducationservesaverydifferentpurposein Japanesesociety(seeTablelforanoverviewoftheJapanesehighereducation systemcomparedtotheUS).SincethereformationofeducationafterWorldWar IItheJapanesehaveemphasizedtheroleelementaryandsecondaryeducationplay inlayingafirmfoundationforchildren,butsomewhatattheneglectofhigher education. TablelComparisonofJapaneseandusHigherEducation

Typeoflnst. NumberofInst. NumberofStudents

Japan us Japan us National 99 621,126 Public 66 599 101,062 6,318,000 Private 457 1536 1,978,916 3,005,000 total 622 2135 2,701,104 9,323,000 ※Japanesedataarefrom1999(MonbushoGakkoKihonChousha).USdataareestimatesfo 「1993(USDigestofEducationalStatistics)

216 JournalofRegiona 】DevelopmentStudies(2001 ） OnceJapanesestudentsbegintheirformaleducation,whichaswehavenoted oftenbeginsattwo-yearsofage,thegoalbecomesanobsessivequestforentrance intothemostprestigiousinstitutionsofhighereducation.Enteringone'sschoolof choiceisthesinglegoalformostJapanesestudents.Thisquestforentrance translatesintoexaminationhell.Thepressureleadinguptonotificationofaccep-tanceorrejectionissosevereitendsinsuicidesforsomeofthemostdistraught studentswhodidnotgetintotheuniversityoftheirchoice. Asopposedtothebroadbaseofexcellentuniversitiesthroughouttheus,elite educationinJapaniscentralizedinTokyo,wherethefinestuniversitiestrain studentsforthemostprestigiouspositionsingovernmentandbusiness.Graduates oftheUniversityofTokyo(Todai),forexample,arerewardedwithentranceintothe highestlevelsofthefederalbureaucracyandbusiness.AsGreenfeld(1994,150)

explains: “TheTodaientranceexamdetermineswhoisdestinedforwhatpassesfo 「thegoodlifeinJapan."ThekeytosuccessforJapaneseyouth,therefore.isnotwhattheylearnattheuniversitybutwheretheyattend.AstudentGreenfeld(1994,153)interviewedexplained:

“OnceyougetintoTodai …youknoweverythingwillbeeasier.thateverythingwillbeokay.thatyou'vemadeit.Sowhat'sthepointofdoinganythingonceyouareatTodaiifthereisnolongeranythingtobegained? ”Thesortingfunctionofcollegeexaminationsisfarmoreimportantthantheacademiccontentofhighereducation(Aman01986).Onestudentweinterviewedcharacterizedhisprominentprivateinstitutionasa “Disneyland"wherehismainpurposewastodrinkandsocializewithhisfuturebusinesscolleagues(Kempner&Makino1993).AsReischauer(1986,xviii)hasobserved: “thesquanderingoffouryearsatthecollegelevelonpoorteachingandverylittlestudyseemsanincrediblewasteoftimeforanationsopassionatelydevotedtoefficiency."AmongthemanycriticismsofthefunctionalnatureofJapanesehighereduca-tion,e χaminationhellistheforemostconcern.Whereastheneedforadvancededucationhasrapidlyincreased,thepathtothe “goodlife ”isonlythroughtheexaminationhellthatleadstoTokyo,theeconomic,cultural,governmentalandeducationalcenterofJapan.Asoneprofessorobserved,tobe “trulyeducated"anindividualmustbeeducatedinTokyo(Kempner&Makino1993,189).ThecompetitionforentranceintotheUniversityofTokyo,asmallnumberofprivateinstitutions(Keio,Waseda,andMeiji,forexample),andthemajornationaluniver-sitiesinOsakaandKyotoisincrediblyfiercebecauseitisentrancetothesefewinstitutionsthatdetermineswhowillbeassuredeconomicandsocialsuccessin

Japaneselife. Howbesttoreformthiscurrentsystemofeducationis,therefore,aconcernfor manyJapanesepoliticalandeducationalleaders.Althoughconservativesand liberalsdisagreeontherootcauseoftheproblems,webelievethreebasicissues encompassthemajorityofconcernsregardingtheeducationalsystem.First,the examinationstructure,culminatingwithadmissionintohighereducation,castsa darkshadowovertheentireeducationalsystem.Becauseofthefiercecompetition forentranceintohighereducation.eventwo-yearolds,aswehavenoted.arenot sparedfromtheeffectsofexaminationhell.Second,thecontemporarycultural environmentinJapanhasagreateffectontheschoolsandthedailyinteractionof students,teachers,andparents.Violenceagainstteachersandbullyingorijimeof studentsagainstoneanotheristhesubjectofconsiderablenationalconcern.The changingnatureoftheJapanesefamily,disobediencetoparentsandelders.defiance ofgroupnorms.andlackofrespectforpublicpropertybysomeyouthsarenew behaviorsindirectconflictwithtraditionalJapaneseculture.Third ，theinfluenceoftheexternalenvironmentisalsoresponsibleforchangesbothwithintheschoolsandthelargerJapanesesociety 。Althoughnoonecanbecertainwhatcognitivemapswillbeneededforthefuture,itisourpremiseherethathighereducationshouldequipindividualswiththeabilitytoadapttothechangingsocialandeconomiccircumstanceslifeinthe “newage"willrequire.Becauseofthepressuresbothfromtheinternalandexternalenvironmentsofthisnewage.anumberofreformeffortshavebeenattemptedinJapanesehighereducation.Wereviewnextsomeofthesereformeffortsandconsidertheeffectivenessofthesechanges. EDUCATIONALREFORMEFFORTS TheJapaneseFundamentalEducationLawof1947proposes,amongother

concepts,thateducationshould “aim"atdevelopingindividuals “imbuedwithanindependentspiritasbuildersofapeacefulstateandsociety" （quotedinThomasandPostlethwaite1983,57

218 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2001) purposeofthenationaluniversitieshasbecomesimplytoprovide “peopleusefulforrunningJapan,Inc."(Kempner&Makino1993,188).Thisfocusontraining,evenatthemostprestigiousuniversities,isalarmingformanyJapaneseintellectualswhoseethisfunctionalpurposeofeducationasprovidinganarrow/visionoftherolehighereducationshouldhaveinsociety.Expressingconcernsovereducation,butfocusingprimarilyonviolenceanddelinquencyintheschoolsastheproblem,formerPrimeMinisterNakasonecommissionedtheAdHocorProvisionalCouncilonEducationalReform(PCER)in1984.ThePCERdeliberatedforthreeyearsandultimatelywasquitecriticalofthepresenteducationalsystem.ThePCERreportedJapaneseeducationwasexcessive-lyrigidandwasfailingtorespondtothechangingcircumstancesofstudent'slives.Furthermore,theCouncilfoundtheeducationalsystemtoplacelittleimportanceonindividualdevelopment,ortheneedforlifelonglearning(Tokutake1988andMonbusho,1992).ThePCERadditionallyproposedthreethemesforeducationalreform:anopenmind,asoundbodyandawealthofcreativity" ；“freedomandself-determination,andasenseofpublicspiritedness" ；and “Japaneseandtheworldorder",orinternationalization(Tokutake1988,52).InaseriesoffourreportsthePCERprovidedrecommendationsandspecificproposalsforremediatingwhatitfoundwrongwiththenationaleducationalsystem.Insummary,itsrecommendationsconsideredtheneedforimprovingmoraleducation,teachertraining,reducinguniformityinthecurriculumandintheexaminationsystem,improvingchoiceamongpublicschools,internationalizingtheschools.anddecentralizingschooladministration.Theactualimplementationoftheseref(:)rmeffortshasultimatelybeenrathermodest,however.Perhapsmostdisappointingforhighereducationinparticularwasthefailuretoaccomplishsignificantchangesintheexaminationsystemforentranceintouniversities 。Thee χelusiverelianceonexaminationsforgainingentrancetohighereducationcreates,inTokutake's(1988)terms,a “distorted"educationalsystem.TheJapaneseeducationalsystemisapyramidwithabroadbasethatculminatesinanarrowpeakthatonlyafewcanreach.Unfortunately,witheveryonetryingtoreachthetopallbutaveryfewindividualswillfailintheirattempt.Drucker(1964)notedthatthepyramidstructureintheuslabormarketcreatesaninherentlydissatisfiedworkfor-cebecausenoteveryonecanbeatopexecutive.Similarly,althoughmostJapanesecompetevigorouslyfortherelativelyfewopeningsatthetopuniversities(e.g.,Tokyo,Waseda,andKeio),manyaredistraughtatfailingtogainentrancetothe

schooloftheirchoice.Infact,manystudentswhofailattheirfirstattempt,0r

roninastheyareknown.willspendayearormorestudyingtotaketheexamina-tionsagain 。WhilethispyramidstructureofJapaneseeducationappearsquitedysfunctionalforthementalhealthandultimateeducationofthemajorityofstudents.itservesasaneffective

“rationingdevice"forhighereducation （Evans1991,214 ）.BecausehighereducationinJapanisprincipallyacommodity

（seeWexler1987 ）tobebarteredforajob.theactuallearningastudentreceivesisofminorimportancetowherethislearningoccurs.Unfortunately,byitsdefinition,elitehighereducationcannotbeuniversalandmustberationed.Thisrealityofrationingconflicts,however,withthestrongnormsinJapaneseculturetowarduniformityandgroupcohesiveness.Thedilemma,asVogel （1979 ）suggestsandelaboratedbyFrost （1991 ）,ishowtodifferentiatestudentsintoseparatelevelsortrackswheneverythinginthecultureandclassroomaimstowardgroupunity.Thesolutionappearstobetheintensivescreeningexperienceorexaminationhellwherestudentsaregivenonechancetosucceedinthissingle-eliminationtournament （seeTempleandPolk1984 ）。Becauseofthegroup-orientedculture,therearerelativelyfewwaystoscreenstudentsonthebasisofindividualworkthroughouttheschoolyear.Therefore,asarationingdevice,theexaminationsystemdoeseffectivelyscreenstudentsatseveralcriticaltimesintheireducation.Ratherthanconsiderthecumulativesuccessofstudentsthroughouttheireducationalcareer,theJapanesesystememploysthesingle-eliminationtournamentmodel.Studentshaveonechance,typicallyononeday,toregurgitatealltheinformationtheypossess.Becauseknowledgeisnottheissue,studentsspendhoursuponhoursmemorizingfactsandfigurestopreparefortheonechancetheywillhavetodemonstratetheirproficiencyataccumulatingknowledge.Freire （1970 ）termsthisprocessthe “bankingconcept"ofeducationwhereteachersmakedepositsintostudentsheadsandthenrecallthesedepositslaterinanexaminationoftheknowledgetheyhaveretainedintheiraccounts.Littleifanyconcernisgiventothoughtprocess,problemsolving,oranyoftheotherintegralcomponentstothestudent'sintellectualdevelopmentwhenthisbankingconceptofeducationisfollowed.AsFrost （1991 ）suggests.thereareotherinterpretationsofthereasonsformaintaining.thecurrentbankingsystemofeducationinJapanthatculminatesintheexaminationhell.Thepresentsystemcontinuestooperate,inpart.becauseanumberofpartieshavesomuchinvestedinit.Jukusexistforthesolepurposeof

220 _{JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2001)} examinationpreparationandpublishersofexaminationguidesandbenefitgreatly fromthecurrentsystem.Entranceexaminationsarealsooneoftheprincipal sourcesofrevenueformanyprivateinstitutions.Institutionsprepareandgrade theirownexamsandchargetheequivalentofoverfour-hundreddollarstoeach student.Becauseastudentwilloftentakee χaminationsatfourorfiveinstitutions,givingexaminationsisalucrativebusinessformanyuniversitiesandcolleges.WhilethereisconstantconcernoverhowtheexaminationsystemaffectsallofJapaneseeducation,fewfundamentalchangeshaveactuallybeeninstitutedintheexaminationsystem.Somegeneralreformeffortshavebeenaccomplished,how-ever,astheJapanesereassesstheeffectivenessofthecurrenteducationsystem 。AmongtherhetoricandactualchangestakingplaceinreformingJapaneseeducation,therecognitionoftheneedforlife-longlearningisnotable:Ifournationistofosterasocietywhichisrichanddynamicenoughtofacethechallengesofthe21stcentury.peoplemustbeprovidedwithopportunitiesforparticipatinginlearningthroughouttheirlives. （Monbusho1992,100-101)Asanalternativetotheexistingtournamentmodelofeducation.whereonceindividualsfailorleavethereisnoreturn.theCentralCouncilofEducationsubmitteda1990reportentitled “TheDevelopmentofanInfrastructureforLifelongLearning."Thisreportwasfollowedin1991with “ReformsofVariousEduca-tionalSystemsforRelevanceinaNewAge" （Monbusho,1992 ）.Tofosterlifelonglearningthevariousreportsencouragedcooperationofthefamily,schoolandindustry

“towardbuildingalifelonglearningsociety" （Monbusho1992,101 ）.Thiscooperationistobeaccomplishedthroughtheimplementationoflifelonglearningfairs,afive-dayschoolweek.auniversitytransfercreditsystem.alternativewaysofaccessinghighereducation,moraleducation.andimprovementintestquestions.Whileeachoftheseissueshasthepotentialn:)rstimulatingchange,reformfortheentiresystemisunlikelywithoutfundamentalmodificationsatthepeakofthepyramid,elitehighereducation.TheUniversityCouncilofMonbushohasrecommended,however,anumberofchangesto

TheCouncilalsoproposedstrengtheninghighereducationthroughthedevel-opmentof “worldclassstandardsofeducationandresearch."Thesestandards.theCouncilsuggests,aretobeattainedbyimprovingfacultyskillsandupgradinggraduateeducationbydoublingthetotalnumberofgraduatestudentsbytheyear2000.TheCouncilspecified,aswell,theneedforincreasedfundingtopromotescientificresearchandthedevelopmentofprogramsforyoungscholarsandscien-tists 。Inadditiontoimprovingexistinginstitutionsandresearchfacilities,theCouncilalsoencouragedfurtherimprovementinentranceexaminations.Onesignificantchangethathasbeenmadeintheexaminationsprocedurehasbeentheimplementationofthe “jointfirst-stageachievementtest",orscreeningexamination.Promptedbytheneedfornationaluniversitiestolimitthenumberofstudentstakingtheirexaminations,thisfirst-stagetestisgivenearlyinthecalendaryearasawaytoscreenstudentswhowillbeallowedtotakethespecificinstitutionalandsubjectexaminationslaterinthespring.Whilethenationaluniversitieshaveembracedthefirst-stagetest,sincetheydonotbenefitdirectlyfromchargingstudents,mostprivateinstitutionsdonotwishtolosethemoneytheyreceivefromhavinglargenumbersofstudentstaketheirexaminations.Althoughthefirst-stagetestservesanearlyscreeningfunctionithasdonelittletochangeanythingsubstan-tiveabouttheroleexaminationsplayforstudent'schancesforenteringhighereducation.Realistically,thefirst-stagetestissimplyascreeningdevicefortheexaminationhellmoststudentswillendurelaterintheyearanyway.InitsproposedchangesforhighereducationtheCouncilacknowledgedalsotheneedforincreasedscholarshipprogramsbothforJapanesestudentsandforeignstudentswishingtostudyinJapan.Relativetotheus,however,scholarshipsorfinancialaidforJapanesestudentsarequitemodest.WhiletheCouncilexpectsfurtherexpansionofsuchprograms.thedetailsonhowthisistooccurhavenotbeenspecified 。AlthoughwehavecharacterizedJapaneseeducationasprimarilymodernistic.Monbusho （1992,137 ）recognizestheneedforaneducationalsystemtomeetthedemandsofthecomingage: “Whenweconsidertheroleofformaleducationinthecontextofinternationalization,themostimportantissueishowtodevelopJapanesecitizenswhoaretrustedintheinternationalcommunity." ’HowtheeducationalsystemcanbestequipJapanesestudentswithcognitivemapsthatinsurethistrustandguidetheirfutureinthepostmodernworldshouldbe,webelieve,theessential

222 _{JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2C01)}

questionunderlyingeducationalreformandfuturesocialandeconomicdevelop-ment.

CONCLUSION Innovative “productionandorganizationconcepts"inbusinessandmanage-ment,accordingtoBest(1990,2 ）,areresponsibleforJapan'seconomicsuccess.Thisnewcompetition,Bestargues,isthereasonaswellfc:)rtheeconomicdeclineoftheus.Deteriorationofusindustrialcompetitiveness.Bestexplains.isduetoproblemsoforganization,notofproductivity.asiscommonlyargued: …definingAmerica'sindustrialdeclineintermsofslowratesofproductivitygrowthisconsistentwithanimageofanorganizationallysoundeconomyinneedofminoradjustment.Itimpliesthatindustrycanberevivedbyasetofgovernmentandmanage-rialpoliciesthatdonotrequiredeep-seatedorganizationchanges.(p ，3）Similartotheneedforreformintheuseconomytomeetthenewcompetition.webelieveJapaneseeducation,particularlyatthecollegiatelevel,isinneedofaccomplishingthesame “deep-seatedorganizationchanges"facingtheuseconomy.WeagreewithKitamura （1991,318 ）that: “ThedaysofsimplyemphasizingthetraditionalscreeningfunctionareoverforJapanesehighereducation."IfhighereducationistoserveJapan'sfutureeconomic,social,andeducationalneedsitmustmeetthe “newcompetition"posedbyeducationalsystemsinothercountries.Aswehavereviewedinthischapter.althoughthecontemporarysystemofJapaneseeducationhasbeenquitefunctionalthusfarfortheculturalneedsofbusinessandgovernment,wequestiontheabilityofthispresentsystemtoeffectivelyserve “Japan,Inc's"futureroleasagloballeader.Ourinterpretationisapost-modernone,whereinwebelievethecognitivemapsstudentsdevelopinthepresentsystemofeducationwillbeinadequatetoguidethemsuccessfullyintothefuture.Becauseitisimpossibletoknowwhatstudentsshouldpossessintheircognitivemaps,thetaskofaneducationalsystemshouldbetopreparestudentswiththecapacitytounderstandandadapttothechangingneedsofthefuture.Unfortunate-ly ，aswehavenoted,contemporaryJapanesehighereducationismodernisticinitsstructure ；itservesmoretorationeducation,bankknowledge,anddispenseinfor-mationthantofullyeducatestudents.Thetrueeducationalfunctionhastradition-allybeentheresponsibilityoftheemployerswhoknew,toacertaine χtent,thattheywerehiringastudenteffectivelysocializedtothecultureofJapanesegovernmentor

business.ChangesinJapanesesocietyandtheeconomy,however.arealteringnot onlytheschoolsandthefamily,aswehavenoted,butalsotheexpectationof life-longemploymentwiththesamecompany.Whereasbusinessescouldaffordto trainemployees,knowingitwouldbealife-longinvestment,theriskisgrowingthat employeesmayactuallyleavethecompanyorhavetobelaidoff.Intheus,this problemoftrainingwassolved,somewhat,bystudentsreceivingabettereducation atthecollegiatelevel.althoughmanyemployeesstillundergosomeinitialtraining aftercollege. ThecurrenteconomicandsocialchangesJapanisnowfacingarealready causingdeclinesinthecollegepopulationandrisingcostsofpreparingforand attendingcollege.Becausesuchahighproportionofuniversitiesareprivateand tuition-driven,itisnotlikelythatallinstitutionswillsurvivethischangingdemo-graphicandeconomicclimate.Kitamura(1991,311)suggeststhat “Japanesehighereducationwillfaceaperiodof'institutionalself-selection'inwhichanumberofhighereducationalinstitutionscouldbeclosedorseverelycutback."Theusfacedasimilarsurvivalperiodforhighereducationwiththedeclineinthecollege-agedpopulationinthelate1970sand1980sanddrasticreductionsinfundinginthe1990s(ChronicleofHigherEducation1993).WhilethesurvivalofthemajorJapanesenationaluniversitiesissecure,ade-quatefundingfortheseinstitutionsisofgreatconcerntothefaculty.asreportedbytheSurveyandStudyCommitteefortheFinancialBaseofNationalUniversities(1991),presentedinKempnerandMakino(1993).Nevertheless,asthecollege-agedpopulationdeclinesinJapanandascostsincrease.statebureaucratscontinuetoquestion “thoseaspectsofhighereducationthatdonotdirectlyandsubstantiallycontributetothenationalgoalsofJapan,asdefinedineconomicterms"(Kempner&Makino1993,191).Theproblemwiththismodernisticdefinitionofeducation,however,isthatnowasaworldleaderJapanhasobligationsbeyondonlyeconomicones.Japancannolongeraffordaneducationsystemthatoperatesonlyonmodernisticprinciples.ThispresentsystemleavesJapanesestudentswithcognitivemapsunsuitabletoguidetheminthenewage.RatherthanpostmodernmapsthatembracecomplexityandamulticulturalawarenessfortheevolvinginternalandexternalculturalenvironmentsJapanesestudentspossessmapswhosemainpurposeistoguidethemtotherightcollege.AsJapancontinuestointernationalize,theeconomy,government.anduniver-sitiesbecomeevenmoredependentupontheglobalmarketplaceofproducts,ideas,

224 _{JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2001 ）}

and,politics.Theincreasinglymultinationalnatureofbusinessrequires employees,especiallyexecutives,tobeequallymulticulturalintheiroutlook. understanding,andeducation.Whilethetraditionaleducationalsystemmay

effectivelycreatethe “salaryman"forJapanInc ・，thispracticemaynotbeasfunctionalforinternationalbusinessesthatwishtohireJapaneseemployees （Beau-champs1991 ）.WhenhiringJapanesecollegegraduates,eitherinJapanorglobally,multinationalcompanieswillexpecttheseindividualstobewelleducated,notmerelywellselected.Thisselectionprocess,whichhasseeminglybeensofunc-tionalforJapan,hasmuchlessvalueformultinationalcorporationsoragenciesthatexpectcollegegraduatestobewelleducated.notmerelysocialized.Thiscross-culturaldifferenceintheexpectationsofhighereducationisquiteapparentfortheunknowingJapanesestudentwhoentersaprestigioususuniversityandisshockedattherigoranddemandsrequired.Itisnotthe “Disneyland"experiencesomeexpect.BecauseincreasingnumbersofJapanesestudentswillbeemployedbyraulti-nationalcompaniesinJapanandbecausemorestudentswillfillpositionswithJapanesecompaniesinothercountries,themodernisticnatureofthe “salaryman"istransforming.Althoughtheeconomicandeducationalclimatesarechanging.theJapaneseeducationalsystemisonlyslowlyresponding,despitetheencouragingrhetoricofsomeagenciesandintellectuals.Monbusho （1992,138 ）,fore χample.recognizeswelltheneedtointernationalizeJapaneseeducation,notonlyforeconomicpurposes: “ItisexpectedthatJapanshouldactivelytakeaninternationalroleinthefieldofcultureaswell."ThemodernisticnatureofJapanesehighereducationisbeginningtogivewaytothenewwaysandinfluencesofthelargerglobalculture.Japaneseeducationisbeinginternationalized,whethertheinstitutionswantitornot.AsMonbusho （1992,143 ）notes,thenumberofJapaneselivingoverseasforextendedperiodsoftimeisrapidlyincreasing.In1992,forexample,approximately51,000Japaneseschool-agedchildrenwerelivingabroad.Monbushoreportsaswellthatduringthe1990-1991schoolyear.approximately13,000elementaryandsecondaryagedstu-dentsreturnedtoJapantobereintegratedintoJapaneseschools 。Japanesechildrenwholiveinanothercountrycarrytheseedsofinternationali-zationandpossesscognitivemapsmuchdifferentfromtheirpeerswhohavestayedathome.Notsurprisingly,thedifferentneedsandperspectivesofthesechildrenandtheirreintegrationintothemodernisticeducationalsystemhasbecomean

“importanttaskfortheGovernment"(Monbusho1992,143).Justastheusfaces theneweconomiccompetitionfromJapan'sindustries.Japannowfacesanew educationalcompetitiontomoreadequatelyprepareitschildrenfortheneedsofthe postmodernage.Similartotheproblemstheusfaceswiththeadaptationofnew organizationalpracticestothemandatesofusculture,Japanshouldconsiderhow itseducationalsystemcanbereformedinculturallyappropriateways.Whileeach country'seducationalandeconomicsystemoffersvaluableapproachesforadapta-tion,neithersystemcanbeimportedwithoutconsiderableculturalaccommodation. AsthenewworldeconomicleaderJapanshouldpreparetoassumeitsrolein theculturalandsocialaspectsofgloballeadership.Becauseeducationissocritical ininsuringthisinternationalleadership,wehavequestionedinthischapterhow wellthepresentJapaneseeducationalsystemispreparingitschildrenandfuture leaderswithcognitivemapsappropriateforthenewage.Bycomparison,even thoughtheusnowfacesincreasingeconomicandeducationaldifficultiesathome andintheworldmarketplace,itcontinuestoexertapervasiveinfluencethroughthe exportingofculture,knowledge.technology,andideas.Thisinfluence,toalarge extent,isattributabletotheroletheuseducationandeconomicsystemsplayin fosteringandrewardingcreativityandindividualinitiativeintheproductionof knowledge.Anindicationofthecontroltheuscontinuestoexertintheproduc-tionanddisseminationofknowledgeisreportedbytheJapaneseNationalInstitute ofScienceandTechnologyPolicy(Niwaetal.1991),whichshowstheusaccount-ingforover50%ofthescientificpaperspublishedintheworldcomparedto approximately7%forJapan. Whiletheusmayfacestiffcompetitionforitsmanufacturedproducts,its controlofknowledgeproductioncontinuestodominateinthefieldsofscience. computers,technology.communications,transportation,space.military,and.not inconsequential,entertainment.WhereastheJapaneseeducationandeconomic systemshavebeenquitemodernandfunctionaluntilthepresent,theburstofthe bubbleeconomyandtherapidindustrializationoftheAsianTigers(e ・g。Taiwan,SouthKorea,andThailand)havecreatedanew,postmoderncompetitionforthefuture.HowwellJapanisabletoadaptitseducationalsystemtotheneedsofthecominginformationagewillaffectnotonlyitseconomicprominence,butitsimportanceasagloballeader.Inparticular.wequestionhowcapablethemodernstructureofJapanesehighereducationistoprovidestudentswiththecognitivemapstheywillneedtofindtheirwayinapostmodernfuture.

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228 _{JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2001)} あ と が き “翻 訳 や 英語 で論 文 を書 く こ との難 し ざ イ タリア の諺 に“Traduttoritraditori.”"Translatorsaretraitors." とい う のが あ る。「 翻訳 は困 難 で、 誤 解をし や すい し、 さ れや すい。」と言 う 意味 で あ る。 翻 訳 は、 あ る場 合 に は比 較的 簡 単 で易 し い が、あ る場 合に は不 可能 で あ る と言 っ て いい ほ ど困 難 で あ る。 そ れが易 しい か難 し い か は、 第 一 に、 訳そ う とす る言語 な り文 章 の目的 に よる。 第 二 に、 ど この 国 の言 語 から どこ の国 の言 語 に訳 す か によっ て決 ま る。 もし も二 つの 国 の言語 が、 語 源的 に も、 文 法、 構 造上 から も比 較的 似 か よっ た もので あ る場合 、 た とえ ば英語 、 フ ラン ス語、 ド イツ 語 とい っ た三 つ の言 語の い ず れか から、 その うち の他 の言語 に訳 す場 合 に は比較 的 容易 で あ る け れ ど も、 日 本語 と英語 の よう にい ろい ろ な意 味で かけ離 れてい る 言語同 志 の訳 は困 難 で あ る。 第三 は、 急激 に変 わり つつ あ る言葉 を他 の 国 の言葉 に訳 すこ とは困 難で あ るが そ うで ない場 合 に は比 較 的 易 し い と言 え よう。純粋 に技 術的 な目的 の もので あ る場 合 に は翻訳 は 非常 に楽 であ る。た と えば理 科 、 工 科系 統の論 文 の よう な ものの 翻訳 も比 較 的 容易で あ る とい え よう。 こ の よう な技 術的 な もの に は 人 間 の感 情 や情 緒 は含 ま れてい な いし 、 風俗、 習慣 や その 国民 固有 の 心情 も含 まれ てい な いの が通 例 で あ る。 し か もこう いう 技術 的 もの に は、 そ れ特 有 の技術 的 用語 があっ て、 こ の 用語 さ えわ き ま えて い れ ば大 きな誤 り を犯 さ ずに訳 せ る。 わ たし は、アメ リ カの大 学 に在 学し てい た頃 から日米 文 化 交流 に貢献 す る目的 で、日米 比 較 言語 、 文 化、 教育 の論 文 を数多 く書い て き た。 英 語 が母国 語 でな い もの が英 語で 論文 を書 く と陰 で確 証 も な い ま まに い ろい ろ と誤 解 を生 む よう な噂 を流 す人 が いる の も事 実 で あ る。 この よう な こ と を気 に し て い て は、い つ までた っ て も日 本 人 の英 語 は よくな らない し国 際的 な 理 解 も得 られ ない で あ ろう。 もし 、 サ イデ ン ステッ カ ー氏 が 、 川端 康成 の「雪国 」 を翻訳 し な かっ た ら日本 文学 を世 界 の人々 に 紹 介 出来 なかっ たし 川端 康成 の ノ ーベ ル文 学賞 も実現 し なかっ た だろ う。 以 上 の よう に国語 や 言葉 の本 質 な どか ら みてさ まざ まな困 難 を克 服 し なが ら も翻 訳 や英 語 で 論文 を書 か なけ れ ばな らな い。 また 書 く必 要 があ るので あ る。 こ こに 日本 を諸 外国 へ紹 介 す る必 要 性 と 価 値 が 生 まれ るか らで あ る。 ‥