Economic Regionalization in East Asia : Evolving Trends and Processes

Economic Regionalization in East Asia : Evolving Trends and Processes

著者 ベニー テー チェン グアン

journal or

publication title

人間社会環境研究

volume 13

page range 75‑89

year 2007‑03‑15

URL http://hdl.handle.net/2297/3682

論文

人間社会環境研究第13号２００７．３ 7５

inEaStAsi劇：EvolvingTrendls Regionalizati⑪ｎｉｎＥａＳ“

andProcesses Economic

BennyTehChengGuan

東アジアにおける経済地域化：動向とプロセスの展開

客員研究員

ペニー。テー。チェン。グアン

要旨

経済的相互依存は東アジア地域ダイナミズムの主動脈と見なされている。経済面の地域化を 進める上で主要な役割をになっているのは非国家主体である。しかしながら，貿易，投資，事 業ネットワークや超国家的企業が戦11各的プロセスとして作り出した生産パターンがどう変化を

本論文は東アジア地域における内外変化がどう経済プロセスの地域化に影響しているかを注

究し，適時の説明をすることを目的としている。そのために，本論文は三章に分けられている 第一章は地域経済発展の日本人による説明として雁行モデル（FG）を評価する。第二章は地域

検討-結果は，地域化パターンに転換が起きていることを示l唆している。また，貿易パターン の転換は地域内外の変化によるとの考えを打出す。地域的レベルで活動する株式会社は常に世 界的経済システムの変化に敏感であり，規模の経済や利潤の最大化を達成しなくとも，競争に 対処するため活動を調整し戦略をねり直すだろう。間接的に，それらの活動は東アジアの諸国

と人々を以前よりも近づけることによって地域建設に貢献している。

キーワード

東アジア、経済地域化，生産ネットワーク，民族事業ネットワーク，経済的相互依存

landscapearethenon-stateactors･Yet，littleis knownofhowtradainvestment，businessnetworks andproductionpattemsasstrateglcprocessescarved outbytransnationalco1poratefirmsaredriving changeandfbstermginterdependenceacrossthere- glon

lnconcertwiththenotlonofglobalization，thispa- perlookscloselyathowglobalizationandchanges withintheTegio1Thaveafrectedtheregionalizationof economlcprocessｅｓｉｎＥａｓｔＡｓｉａｌｔａｉｍｓｔｏｅｘｐｌｏｒｅ ａｎｄidenUfyhowinfbrmalprocesseshaveshapedand lｎｔｒｏｄＭｃｔｉｏｎ

Ｗｉｔｈｉｎａｓｐａｎｏｆｔｗｏｄｅｃａｄｅｓｏｒｓｏ，EastAsiahas beentransformedintoadynamiqfastgrowlngand prospenngregionineconomlcterms，Thequickre- coveryoftheAsianngｅｒｓｔｈａｔｆｅｌｌｄｕｅｔｏｔｌ１ｅｉｎｆａ－

ｍｏｕｓfinancialcrisis，ｔｈｅｒｉｓｅｏｆＣｈｉｎａａｓｔｈｅｅｎｇｌｎｅ ｏｆｇｒｏwthandtheeconomicrecoveryofJapanare seenasfactorscontributingtoEastAsia,sdynamlsm Whilepoliticscontinueｔｏｐｌａｙａｒｏｌｅ，thekeyplay- ersorprlme-moversmregionalizingtheeconomlc

7６ 人間社会環境研究第13号２００７．３

areshapingtheconstructionofEasｔＡｓｉａａｓａｒｅｇｌｏｎ Ｔｏｄｏｓｏ，thispaperisdividedintothreesections-the firstsectloneva]uatestheflyinggeescmodel（FG）

asaJapaneseexplanationofregionaleconomicde- velopment；thenextsectionidentifiesshiftstowards productionnetwolksiandthefinalsectionlooksat challgesoccu1ringinbusiness/et]]nicnetworks・A briefconclusionisprovidedatthｅｅｎｄ

presentedatheoryofCagreedspecialization，andin- colporatedfbreigndirectinvcstment（FDI）intothe fTamework・FDIisconsideredthekeyfactorthaten- tailsthesystematicandhiemrchicaltransferofindus- trialresourcesfromaleadgoosetoafbllowergoose

orgeese

TherefOre,ｉｎＥａｓｔＡｓｉａｔｈｅＦＧｍｏｄｅｌｏｆ‘catching- upproductcycle，wouldsupposedlyconsistofJapan atthefiDnt,ｆｂllowcdbythefirst-tiernewlyindustri-

alizedeconomies（NIES）（SouthKorea，Taiwan

(Malaysia,Thailand，PhilippinesandlndonesiaL

(MNCs)andtransnationalco]porations(TNCs)play

animportantroleinindustrialtransferthroughFDIs・

ＴｈｅＦＧ，whichisconsideredaneo-classicaleco-

nomicindustrialupgradingmodel，hasbeenactively prolnotedbybothscholarsandtheJapanesegovem- mentCertainSoutheastAsiancountriessuchasMa- laysiaandSingaporehavealsoplayedinstrumental rolesin‘instimtionalizing，thecatch-upprocessunder theclook-east，policyconcept・However,ｔｈｅpointin questioniswhethertheFGparadigmhasprovidedan accurateexplanationofinfOrmaleconomlcregionali- zationinEastAsiaandwhetheritwouldbejustifi- abletodisｍｉｓｓｉｔａｓａｈｙｐｅｄｕｐｉｌｌｕｓｉｏｎｏｒｍｙｔｈ

ｌｎｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｏｆｄｌｅＦＧｆｍｍｅｗｏｒｋａｒｅｐｕｎditsand scholarswhoarguedthatthereisasystematictrade patterninｔｈｅｆｂｒｍｏｆＦＤＩⅡowsfromJapantooUler EastAsiancountries、Indeed，ｔｈｅｒｅｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎａｆｅｗ ｗａｖｅｓｏｆＦＤＩｓｔｈatstartedfTomthemid-1960sbut themostsignificantperiodwasafterｔｈｅＰ１ａｚａＡｃ－

ｃｏｒｄｉnthemid-l980swhenUleeffectofe"aaka broughtabouta］argeinnuxofJapaneseFDIsfirst intotheNLcountries,dlenintotheASEAN-4，fOl- lowedmorerecentlybyChinaandVietnam、Thisis mostprofbundinthemanufacturingindustry，reHect- ingJapan，sownindustrializationdevelopmenｔｔｏａ ｌａｒｇｅextent、Thepattemofthedirectinvestment，ａｓ

TheFIyingGeese（FG）Ｍｏｄｅｌ

－ａｎｅｖａＩｕａｔｉｏｎ

ＣoinedbyKanameAkamatsuinmel930s，the flyinggeesetheorywasdesignedtoexplainthese- quentialdevelopmentofmanufactunngindustries，

Thesequencewastofbllowatrajectorypattemln lheshapeofaninverse‘Ｖ，thatexplainsthedevelop- ment‘aftertheless-advanced-country,ｓｅｃｏｎｏｍｙｅｎ－

terslntoanlnternationaleconomicrelationshipwith theadvancedCountries,.’Aknmatsu,sideaswere originallyappliedtotｈｅｓｍｄｙｏｆＪａｐａｎ，sindustrial developmentfromtheMeijiperiod,inwhichhear- guesthatabasicthree-stagepattemcanbeobserved，

beginningwiththeimportationofsuperlorgoods，

fO11owedbyimport-substimtingproductionandthen exportatlonofmanufacmredgoodstolessadvanced

coｕｎｔｎｅｓ･

Byl960s,hearguedthatJapanhassurpassedthe threestagesandenteredthefOurthstage，whereex- portatlonofconsumergoodsisreplacedbyhigher- levelcapitalgoods・Ｆｕrthennore，ｈｅｓｅｅｓａｃｅｒｔａｉｎ ｆｂｎｎｏｆｗｏｄｄｏｒｄｅｒｃenteringonatleastthreeFG groups-oneinAmerica，ｏｎｅｉｎＥｕｒｏｐｅａｎｄｏｎｅｉｎＪａ－

ｐａｎ２ＡｋａｍatsuhadfOreseenthattheadvancementof Japan，sdevelopmentwouldbringaboutahighde- greeofheterogeneityvls-a-visless-developedcoun- tｒｉｅｓｂｕｔａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅtimewouldresultinhomogene- 1tywithadvancedcounmes，thusgivingrisetotrade conflicts・HiswolkhasbeencontinuedandfUl-ther expandeduntilhisdisciplc，KiyoshiKQiima，ｗｈｏ

東アジアにおける経済地域化：動向とプロセスの展開 ^7７

blell

Whilemacroeconomicsdoinsｏｍｅｗａｙｓｌｅｎｄｓｕｐ－

ｐｏｌ－ｔｆｂｒｔｈｅＦＧ，itspopularityhasbeenonthede- clineanditseffectivenessasamodelfbrdevelop- menthasbeenunderscrutinybythosewhoconvlnc- mglyargueagainstit､４obviously，themodelisladen withimperfectexplanationsandisincreasinglymca‐

pableofprovidinganaccurateplctureoftherapid changesandunfbreseencllcumstancestransfOmnng theregionUndeniably，asEastAsianeconomiesfnr- therdevelopandeconomictiesdeepen，thecomplex structuresthatarebeingfbnnedarebecomingless andlessｆａｍｉｌｉａｒｔｏｔｈｅＦＧａｓｓｕｍｐｔlonsandunder- standingsofeconomlcregionalizatiolL

WhatAkamatsｕｆａｉｌｔｏｐｒｅｄｉｃｔａｒｅｔｈｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｓｏｆ ｇlobalization,technologicalinnovationandtheriseof ahugenationlikeChina,Indeed,Akamatsuwasprl- marilyconcernedwithnation-buildingandeven thoughGregionalintegration，ｗａｓaddedintothe frameworkbyhisstudentsandfbllowers，nationa］

economiescontinuetobeU1edomiwmtunitsof

analysis・ＭＮＣｓａｎｄＴＮＣｓｃｅｒｔａｉｎｌｙｍａｄｅｐｏｓｓｉｂle thetransferofcapitalandtechnologiesacrossborders，

butwithglobalizationtheyalsohelptoblulthosc lines･Explanationofeconomlcregionalizationbased onindividualcountrydevelopmentbecomeslessen- couraging，Apartfromchangesintheglobalpolitical economy，thepoliticaleconomyofindividualcoun- trlesandtheorganizationofproduction，marketsize andpopulationarealsoimportantfactorsthataffect changｅａｎｄｓｈｏuldbedulyconsidered5

VariouscriｔｉｃｉｓｍｓｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｔｈｒｏｗｎａｔｔｈｅＦＧ

ｍｏdelThereareatleastthreeworthmentioning・O

Firstly，reverselmportsaspredictedbytheproduct cycletheoryhavebeendisappointing，Ｔｈｅｒｅａｓｏｎ ｔｈａｔｔｈｅｙｄｉｄｎｏｔｏｃｃｕｒｔｏａｌａｌｇｅｅｘｔｅｎｔｉｓｆｉｒｓＵｙｄｕｅ ｔｏｔｈｅｍａnufacmringofproductsfbrlocalhost cconomiesandfbrcxporttothirdcountries（primar- ilytheUS)，secondlythercluctancetotmnsfertech‐

nologicalknow-howandfinallythecontmuousprod- showninFigureLisindicativeoftheFGmodel

shiftmgfromtheNIEstotheASEAN-4andre- centlytoChina、Thishasprobablyresultedinthe economicgrowthofthesecounmeswithａｃｅｒｔａｍ ｔｉｍｅｌａｇａｓｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｅｄｂｙｔｈｅＦＧ．

FigurelJapan,sManufacturingShareofInvestｍｅｎｔ(cases）

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AinrtherchEmcteristicoftheFGisthehypothetl- caltier-by-tierrelocationofindustria］activitiesthat occurinasequentialfbrmationfromJapantothe NIEs，ｔｈｅＮｍｓｔｏＡＳＥＡＮ－４，ＡＳＥＡＮ－４ｔｏＣｈｉｎａ

ａｎｄｓｏｏｎ・Statisticalevidencedoestoacertalnex-

tentshowthetrendespeciallyfiomtheeal-lytomid- l990s、TheNIEcountries，ｓｈａｒｅｏｆＦＤＩｉｎｔｈｅ

ＡＳＥＡＮ－４ｈａｓｉｎｃｒeasedtremendouslyasthose countriesmatureinmeirindustrializationprocessand begintospreadtheirwingstootherless-developed，

low-labor-costcountries、１，１９９１，Taiwanwasal- readyreportedastheleadinginvestormMalaysia andlndonesiaandsecondleadinginvestor（after

HongKong）inCbina3AsJapan，sFDItoASEAN‐

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人間社会環境研究第13号２００７．３ 7８

uctmnovationbefOremamratlontosurvlveorstay aheadofcompetitors7

Asecondcriticismisthatimport-substimtionasa keystageinthｅＦＧｍｏｄｅｌｗａｓｎｏｔｆｔＩＩｌｙｒｅａｌｉｚｅｄｉｎ manyAsiancountries・Ratherthantheincremental catch-upthatshouldoccurnaturaUy，mostcounmes

(especiallytheASEAN-4）weretryingtoleapfrog

`catch-up，，Asianeconomies，growthhadtobecome somewhatdependentonfbreignfirmsandtheirtech- nologicalprowessSomefirmsproducefOrlocal marketsbuttherearｅａｌsothosethatsetupshopfbr dlird-partymaIkets・Insuchinstances，theimpol-t- substitutionstageisbypassedandthethree-stagese- quenceistruncatedintoatwo-stageone・

ThethirdpointisrelatedtoChina，ｓ‘untraditional FG-like，economlcgrowthEversinceChinadecided toopenitsdoorstotheworldandwelcomeforeign lnvestorsintheea]lyl980s,Chinahasbeengrowing atampidpace・Largelyunaffectedbythefinancial crisis,ｉｔｓｅｃｏｎｏｍｙｈａｓｂｅｅｎｂｏｏｍｉｎｇａｔａｓｔｅadyrate ofabout8percent・Thetargetofenvybyothers，

Chinallasexperiencedaverticaleconomicclimband intheprocessjumpedthequeueandredefinedthe traditionallyunderstoodV-shapＧＡｓｅａｒｌｙａｓｌ９９３，

Chinawasalreadyconsideredbysomｅａｓ‘ａｈｕｇｅ ｂｉｒｄｆｌｙｉｎｇｓｉｄｅｂｙｓｉｄｅｗｉｔｈｔhevariouslayersof Hyinggeeseatvariouslevelsofindustrialproduction・

ＩｎｓｏｍｅａｒｅａｓＣｈｉｎａｉｓｃｏｍｐｅｔｌｎｇｏｒｃanpotentially colnpetewithJapanandtheNms，､８

Therefbre，China，srapidtransfOrmationandits growlngmarketsizearecertainlyhavinｇａｓｔｒｏｎｇｌｍ－

ｐａｃｔｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒＡｓｉａｎcountliesinthereglonand soaffectingtheprocessesofregionalizationRecon- flgurationofeconomicpoliciesandstrategieswould benecessarytoaccommodateandtakeadvantageof theopportunities（aswellasthreats）thatliebefbre them･China，simport/exportprofileisnotonly changingthedirectionofbutfurtherfacilitatingthe

divisionofregional/internationalproductionproc- esses・Indeed，China，ｓｉｍｐａｃｔｏｎｔｈｅｒｅｇｉｏｎｉｓｃａｕｓ－

１ｎｇｃompanlestorestrategizeandrestructure，

TheinfbrmalregionmizationinEasｔＡｓｉａｈａｓａｃｍ－

ａｌｌｙｅｖｏｌｖｅｄｏｕｔｏｆｔheFGexplanationbasedon separatenationaleconomiesintoamorelntercon-

nectcdwebofvcrtical（andhorlzontal）production

networks、ＩｔｉｓａｇｒａｄｕａｌｓｈｉｆｔａｎｄｔｈｅＡｓｉａｎｃｒisisis nothingmorethanoneindicationofsuchashift．

ＡＳｈｉｆｔｔｏｗａ『dｓＲｅｇｉｏｎａｌＰｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎ Ｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｓ（RPNs）

lfthereisanytalkofGregionalintegration,，pro- ductionnetworkswouldprovideabetterexplanation thantheFGfbrtworeasons-first，ｔｈｅＦＧｉｓｓｕｐ－

ｐｏｓｅｄｔｏｂｅｂａｓｅｄｏｎｔhegrowthofindependent cconomiesthroughstagesofdevelopment，andsec- ond，ｔｈｅＦＧｉｓｉｎ－１ｉｎｅｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｏｆopenre-

gionalism9Thisdoesnotimplythatproductionnet-

workspromoteclosedeconomicblocs・However，it doeshelptoilluminateandsupportthenotionofin- terdependenceandinterconnectednesslnregional

economies

Onthis,Hatch＆YalnamurawrotethatGtheecono- miesofAsiaareindeedbecomingincreasinglyinter- twinedButthethreadthatissewingthemtogetheris

notAPEC［readopenregionalism]…Itis,toalarge

extent9Japanesedevelopmentahsm，basedonwhat theycall‘embraceddevelopment,inthefOmlof Japanese-ledproductionalliances.'OTheyseeastrong verticalrelationshipbetweentheembracer（Japan）

andtheembracce（Asiancountrics）thatcanbeliked totherelationshipbetweenlargeJapanesemanufac- turersandtheirkeiretsufinns，whichｏｎｏｎｅｈａｎｄ ｂｅｎｅｆｉｔｔｈｏｓｅｆｉｒｍｓｂｕｔｏntheotherholdthemGcap- tive，duetohighdependency'1Thercgionalizationof Japaneseproductionnetworks，accordingtothem，ｉｓ notmerelyaboutcostreductionbutispartofa globalstrategytostayinternationallycompetitiveby

束アジアにおける経済地域化：動向とプロセスの展開 ^7９

`lock［ing］uptheproductiveresources，inthere- gion.'２NetworksprovideJapanesefirmswiththeop- portunitytotakeadvantageofeachneighboring country,ｓｓｔｒｅｎｇｔｈａｎｄａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅｃｏnstraln othercompetitorsfrommasteringtheentlretechno-

logicalprocess（duetothediscretelocationofpro‐

duction）Whilethismayultimatelyrequirestrong supportfromkeiretsucompanles，eventhistrendis changing

ProponeｎｔｓｏｆＲＰＮｓｓｅｅＪａｐａｎａｓｔｈｅｃｅｎｔｅｒｏｆthe productionhub，ｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎｏｆａｂｏｕｔａｔｈｉｒｄｏｆａｌlre- gionalexportsofcomponentsfbrassembly・Whileall theNIEs，ASEAN-4andChinamaintainstrong tradewithJapan，５０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｒｍｏｒｅｏｆＳｏｕｔｈＫｏ‐

rean、Taiwanese，Filipinoandlndonesiancomponent importsin2001camefromJapan・I3JapaneseTNCs arenotonlyenmeshｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｇｉｏｎｂｕｔｔｈｅｉｒｎｅｔ－

ｗｏｌｋｓｈａｖｅａｌｓｏｂｅｃｏｍｅｍｏｒｅｃｏｍｐｌｅｘｉｎｎａｍｒｅ (evolvingfromhub-basedtocluster-formtoweb

type)uFmthermore,theyholdastrongpresenceln

ASEANandareexpandingintoChina・Withsmaller lnarketsizecomparedtoChina，ASEANcountrles havebeenreceptlvctoJapaneselllvestments，ａｌｌｏｗ－

ｉｎｇｔｈｅＴＮＣｓｔｏｅｓｔａｂｌｉｓｈａｓtrongfootholdthere，

whileChinahasabiggerdomestlcmarketandis partlyconstrainedbylingeringhistoricalproblems thathaveledtoamorecautlousapproachandstiffer competitioninhigh-endproductsfromotherfbreign

firms・

Ａｓｏｆ２００２，Japanesefirmsstillholdlargeshares ofthepassengervehiclemarketinThailand，Indone- siaandTaiwan，commercialvehiclemarketsinthe UlreecounmesandMalaysia，１notorcyclemarketsin Thailandandlndonesia，andarestillcompetitivein thehigh-endconsumerelectronlcsmarketinallfOur countries､l5ThisreHectstheirtechnologicalcapability andinnovatlvepowertorelnventandreproduce higherqualitygoods，Shalpforexamplc，hasmoved intothefOrehontinproducinghigh-endLCDTVs，

snaring25・lpercentofglobalmarketsharein2004,

ｔｗｉｃｅｔｈｅｓｈａｒｅｏｆＳｏｎｙａｔｓｅｃｏｎｄｐｌａｃｅａｎｄＳａｍ－

ｓｕｎｇａｔａｃｌｏｓｅｔｈｉｒｄ１６Sharp，sachievementisdueto arefbcusingonltscol-ebusinessandconcentratlon onhigh-endmarketsinsteadofcompetinginlower mass-markeLMeanwhile,FUjitsuHitachiPlasmaDis- playholdsthelargestglobalshareoftheplaslnaTV market,Furthermore，nextgenerationTVsusingvan- ousnewtechnologiessuchasorganicelectrolumines- cence，fieldelnissiondisplayandliquid-crystal-on- siliconarebeingdeveloped･l7MitsubishiMotors Colp.,saddledwitha￥474.8billionnetlossinfiscal 2004，ｉｓ】･evamp1ngandgｅｍｍｇｕｐｗｉｔｈｐｌａＩ１ｓｔｏｆＯ－

ｃｕｓｏｎｅｌｅctricvehicletechnologyandtheproduction

ofelectricminivehiclesｉｎｉｔｓｅｆｆｏｒｔｔｏｍａｋｅａｃｏｍｅ－

ｂａｃｋl8Therewillbeacompetitionbetweenhybrid fllel-cellandelectric・TheJapanesesemiconductorin- dusｈｙｉｓａｌｓｏｆａｓｔｍａｋｉｎｇａｃｏｍｅｂａｃｋａｓｓystemLSI

(large-scaleintegration）chipsreplaccDRAM（dy-

cureanedgeoverthemorebasicmodelsproduced byotherfbreignmakers・l9TheroboticindLlstrylsan- otherareawhercJapanhasunmatchedcapabilityin

Asia

Apartfromtheabilitytoinnovate，thereisastrong networkalliancebetweenJapaneseTNCsandtheir Asianpartners，charactenzcdbyvariousjoint-

ventures(JV),mergersandacquisitions(M&A）and

armngementsOEMandODM（originaldesign

aｎｄｌＴ/computerindustry，Thisactuallyblursthe linesofnationalboundariesandincreasesthecom-

plexityofregionalizationprocessesATaiwanese firIn，fbrexample，maylnvestinThailandbutmanu- facturepartsorproductsforaJapanesemanufacturer underanOEMagreemenL20Theimplicationsfrom tbiscouldbeadependencyonJapanesefirmsfol.

人間社会環境研究第13号２００７．３

8０

high-valuetechnologyandcompanygrowth，thus demonstratingJapan，scemralimportanceinthepro‐

ductionnetworks，theGtaming,ofAsiancompetitors anditsabilitytocontrolthesupplyofaparticulal componentorproductcomingintothelnalket､21In- steadofcompetingdirectlywithglobalplayers，

whichrequiresthepatientnurturingofbrandname andtechnologicalinnovatlonnottomentlonneces- saryresources，TaiwaneseandHongKongfinns havegenerallyusedcontractmanufacturｉｎｇｔｏｇｒｏｗ ａｎｄｃｏｍｐｅｔｅ２２１ｎａｓｕｒｖｅｙcarriedoutbyMETIin 200Lof3995technologylicensingagreementsinthe

manufacturingindustry（whichmakesup963％of

TaiwanandHongKonghaveexcelledinOEM／

ＯＤＭｄｕｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｈｉｇｈｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｔｅｃｈｎｏlogicalknow- how,Morethanthat,theyalsoserveastest-casesfbr productsenteringmainlandChi､a、Historyplaysa roleaswellifoneconsidersthelong-tennstrategic businessalliancesthatJapanesefinnshaveestab- lishedwithTaiwaneseandHongKongcompanles- theyareperhapsalsomorecomfbrtableindealing wiｔｈｔｈｅｍｔｈａｎｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｌｅｓｓｅｒｋｎｏｗｎａｎdlow-tech mainlandChinesefirlns，althoughUlismayvaryand changeovertime､SouthKoreancompaniesalsohave historicallybeenrenantoncontractmanuftlcmringto catchup・A11thesepolnttothecomplexinterlocking namreofvaliousproductionnetworks，withJapanese TNCsplayingakeyroleandintheprocesscontrib- utlngtotherapidriseofintra-regionaltrade・

Researchanddevelopment（R&D）isprimarily caniedoutinJapanlnmanyindustrialsectors，al- thoughdependingontheproduct，productdevelop- mentcouldbedoneinplaceslikeBangkok，Shang- haiorTaipeLProcurement，ｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ，is changmg，withmoreandmoreJapanesemanufactur- 1ngsubsidiariessourcinglocally,Datafbrfiscal2004

showsthatthefiguresfbrtheNIEsrosefromalow of399percentin2000t０５１．８percentin2003,４２．０ perｃｅｎｔｔｏ５５９ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｉｎＡＳＥＡＮ－４ａｎｄ４0.ｌｔｏ ５Ｌ３ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｉｎＣｈｉｎａ，cross1ngoverthe50percent

mark,z1Thiswouldmeandecreaseddepenｄｅｎｃｙｏｎ

Nevertheless，therearereasonstobelievethat JaｐａｎｅｓｅＰＮｓａｒｅｏｐｅｎｌｎｇｕｐｄｕｅｔｏｔｈｅｄiminishing roleofkaﾉｰeZFLl・VariousM＆Asinthebanking，auto- mobileandelectronicsindustIiesinrecentyearsare causingthekeiretsustructuretocrumbleandfHlLh theautomobileindustry，therevitalizationofNissan lsoneoftheclearestexamplesofashiftfromtllere- lianceontraditionalkeiretsutoseekingthemost cost-effectivesupplieratacertainpoiｎｔｉｎｔｉｍｅ､２５ ＴｈｉｓｉｓｔｒｕｅｆＯｒｏｔｈｅｒｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓｈｋｅHondaand Sharp，whichhaveaglobalprocurementpoliｃｙｔｏ ｂｕｙpartsfromthebest-qualitysupplicrsatthemost reasonableprice・Thcpressuresofbeingglobalcom- petltorsandmaintainingglobalmarketsharesare pushingJapanesemakｅｒｓｔｏｂｅｃｏｓｔｃｏｎｓｃｌｏｕｓａｎｄｔｏ ｏｐｔｆｂrflexiblearrangementstomeettheconstant changeslnmarketneeds・Thchighcapabilitiesof otherAsianfirmscloselylinkｅｄｔｏｔｈｅＪａｐａｎｅｓｅＰＮｓ ｈａｖｅＥｄｓｏｆtlcilitatedsuchashift，ｅｎａｂｎｎｇｔｈｅｍｔｏ ｔａｋｅｏｎｔｈｅｒｏｌｅｏｆｓupplier､２６

Whilethetraditionalkeiretsugroupingsarebe- cominglesssigmficant,therearestnlmanyJapanese SMEslinkedtobigcorporationsknownaslcmzkei

gqisAq（relatedcompanies).Unlikekeiretsu（dcfined

controllingstake)kankeigaishaislcssthanthat,and

independentmanagementprevailstoalargeextent・

Onecharacteristicofkankeigaishaistheclosecoop-

erationi、Ｒ＆Ｄ・

Inrecentyears，EastAsiahasbeenwitnessinga shifｔｉｎｔｈｅｄｙｎamlsmofeconomlcregionalization Thisisnodoubtbroughtaboutbytheunprecedented economlcgrowthofChinathatischangingtheinten-

東アジアにおける経済地域化：動向とプロセスの展開 ^8１

ｐａｒｃｄｔｏ８ａ４ａｎｄ８９,２fbrNAFTAandtheEUre- spectively､31ThisshowsthatEastAsianeconom1es areincreasinglycomplimentary，whichisapotent factorfllelingthegrowthofintra-regionaltradeand contributingtohigherlevelsofeconomlcregionaliza-

tlOn

TheopenlngupofChina，ｓｅｃｏｎｏｍｙａｎｄｉtsshift tomarketstamsisturningthecountrylntoavita］

lmporterinU]eregionChinaisincreasinglyreliant ontheregionfbrimportsandnon-regionalma1kets fbrexportsChina9sEastAsianexportsasapercent- ageofworldexportshavedroppedfrom552percent inl997to447percentin2003whileitsimportsat

545pcrcent（2003）arehigherthanJapan，sat438

China，stopthreeilnportsupplierswereJapan，Tai- wanandSouthKorea（withtheUSfbmth,Malaysia

sixth，SingapoleseventhandHongKongninth）

whilehermostlmportantexportdesｔｉｎａｔｉｏｎｗａｓｔｈｅ ＵＳ３２

ＣｈｉｎａｉｓｎｏｔｏｎlyreplacingJapanasanengineof growthbutthecountry,sabilitytoabsorbmass1ve amountsofregionalexportslsanessentialfactorin lntensifyingimra-regionaltradeandultimatelydeep- eninginterdependence・China，sstableexchangerate andshDnggrowthishavingapositiveeffectonJa- Pan，seconomlcrecoveryandotherAsiancounmes struckbythel997cnsis・Sincel999，tradebetween ChinaandMalaysiahasincreasedby258percent，

Thailandby200percent,Laosby245percent,Viet- namby281percent,CambodiabylOOperccnt,Indo- nesiabyll2percentandthePhilippinesbyawhop- ping565percent，withtradevaluebetweenChina andSoutheastAsiareachingUS$l058billionin 2004.33The2005WorldBankreportonEastAsiain- dicatesthat‘(f）orthcthirdyearlnarow,lmport growthinChinawasthelargestsinglecontributorto sityofintra-tradeandthedivisioｎｏｆｌａｂｏｒ、From

l985to2001，intratradeinexportsgrewfrom23,７ percentto35percent,mpartowedtotheexpanslon ofChina，sshareThemanifbldexpansionofintra- regionaltradeinthepasttwodecadescanbepartly attributedtotherapidexpansionofintra-industry trade（IIT)．Intra-tradefOrgeneralmachineryand electronicmachineryarereportedtohaveexpanded 3.4timesand44timesrespectivelybetweenl990 and2000270tllerreportsshowthatthefastestgrow-

ingProducts（`dynamic，exports）aremanufacturcd

Apaltffomthequantitative，qualitativeanalysisin termsofintensltyandcomplimentantyoftradeis alsoshowingadeepeningofeconomlcregionEUiza- tｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｇｉｏｎｌｔｉｓａｃｏｍｍｏｎｕｎｄｅｒstandingto expectcounmesnearbytoengageeachotherimradc more‘intensely,thancountriesatadistance，ａｎｄｔｈｉｓ ｈａｓｂｅｅｎｗｅｌｌｎｏｔｅｄｂｙ‘gravitymodels,ofinterna- tionaltrade・Therefbre，anymtensityindicesshould takethisfactorintoaccount･Basedonthetradein-

tensityindexfOrEastAsiancountriesin200Lthe

majoriwofbilateraltradcHows（９５outofl32）not

onlyexceededunitybutmorelmportantlywentbe- yondtheircriticaldistance-adjustedexpectedvalues withabouthalf（６５bilateraltradeflows）recording highervaluesthansixyearsagq29Thisclearlysug- geststhattraderelationsintheregionareｈｉｇｈｌｙｉｎ－

ｔｅｎｓｅｎｏｔｓｉｍｐｌｙｄｕｅｔｏｇeographicproximitybut substantiveeconomicrelationsInadditioｎｔｏｔｈａｔ，

thetradecomplementaryindexwhicｈｌｏｏｋｓａｔｔｈｅ ｃｏｍｐａtibilityofexport-andimport-profilesofcoun- triesindicatesthatthereisahighdegreeofmatching comparabletotheEUandNAFTAWithlOObeing anexactmatch,theoverallvaluehasrisenfTom51.2 ｉｎｌ９８５ｔｏ６８０ｉｎ２００２，closingｉｎｏｎＮＡＦＴＡａｔ ７Ｌ６ａｎｄｔｈｅＥＵａｔ８１０（2002)3()Thefiguresare muchhigherfbrmachinerycomponentsat831com-

人間社会環境研究第13号２００７．３ 8２

exportgrowthintherestofemergingEastAsia，jj1

Closertraderelationscouldwellcreateamorefavor- ableperceptlontowardsChinaandhelptoallａｙｔｈｅ

℃hinathreat,syndrome・ＡｓｉｓｅｖｉｄｃｎｔｉｎＴａｂＩｅ２ ｂｅｌｏｗ，manyAsiancountrlesarerecordinglargein-

creascsinexportshares（shadedpart）ａｎｄbenefiting

fromtradewithChina．

Chinatotakeadvantageofthelow］aborcostsand strongcomparativeadvantageintheassemblyof low-andhigh-techfinishedmanufklcturedgoods；１t ismoreefficienttolmportlntermediatepartsand componentsneededfbrfinalgoods､３７

ThiscouldimplythatAsianeconolnlessupplying ChinawouldｂｅｃｏｍｅlessdirectlyaffectedbyUS marketvulnerabilitiesorHucmations，hcncelessdc- pendent，ａｎｄｔｈａｔａｎｙｄｒｏｐｉｎＣｈｉｎａ,sextra-regional exportscouldstillbepartiallybufferedbystrongdo- mesticdemands､３８A1thoughthismaybodewellfbr intra-regionaltrade，itdoesnotimmediatelytranslate intoanalienationoftradewithnon-regionalparmers･

Asmentionedearlier，ASEANcounmesstillfeature prommentlyinUStrade、Theregioncontmuestore- mainopen，asincreasedintra-tradehasnotcomeat theexpenseofnon-regionalmarkets､３９ASEANwill l-clnainimportantatleaｓｔｆｂｒｔｗｏｓimplereasons：

first，investorswouldratherspreadthanputalltheir eggslnonebasket，ａｎｄsecond，varlousinitiatives suchastheASEANCommunltyprqJect，ＡＦＴＡａｎｄ ＡＩＡａｌｅｈｅｌｐｉｎｇｔｏｍａｋｅｔｈｅｓub-regionmorecondu- clvetoinvestors・Furthermore，mainlandChinese withtheirnewfbunｄｗｅａｌｔｈａｒｅｂeginningtolnvest abroadandintoAＳＥＡＮ，cspeciallyinthelndochi- nesecountrles，whichareconsideredtohavelower laborcostthantl]ecoastalareasofChina.､l0Cambo- dia,Vietnam，ＭｙａｎｍａｒａｎｄＬａｏｓａｒｅａｍｏｎｇｔｈｅｔｏｐ ３０destinationsofChina，sapprovedFDItotalingUS

$lO91millionin2002,'1 Table2MajorChangesinEastAsianRegionaITradeDe

pendency

II1crensclncxportmn｢ketslwCs('995-2001）

L【IrgcstmarketshaICincrclIsc２m｣lnrgeRtmZlrkctsh【lrciIIcrcZ1sc lmpomingcounIIylClm1lgc(%）InIpo1xingcounmylChangc(%）

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[4.7 17.0

chin、 Singnporc

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Soulrcc:AdaptcdfYolnNg&Yeats,２００３;METlWhilcPapcr12{ル］

lnessencc，itispossibletoarguethatafilrtherdi- visionoflaborthatincludesmainlandChina，amore extenslveproductionnetworkandashiftinthenndi- tionalunderstandingoftradcpatternsisoccurrlng・

ChinaisjoiningSoutheastAsiancountrlesasamain lmporterofpartsandcomponents・ＷhileJapancon- tmuestodemonstrateacomparativeadvantageinthe fnbricationofcomponentsfbrexportsandSingaporc servesasanexportbascfbrintermediarygoods，

ChinajoinsMalaysia,Thailandandlndoncsiaasim- portantproductionbasesfbrtheassemblyofproducts

Furthennore，ｔｈｅｒｅｉｓａｔradepatternemerglng fromChina,sparticipation，primarilyinthemachin- ery/high-techsectorthatincludeskeyproductssuch aspartsofofficemachincs，elecbDniccircuitsand partsoftelecomequlpment，wherebyothercountries inthereglonsupplyinterlnediatecomponentｓｔｏ Ｃｈｉｎａｆｂｒｆｉｎａlassembly､３５Ｔｈｅｓｅａｒｅｔｈｅｎｓｈｉｐｐｅｄ ｏｕｔｔｏｔｈｅＵＳａndotherpartsoftheworld36This emerglngpatternisduetotherelocationoffinalas- semblymanufncturing（oftcnlaborintensive）ｉｎｔｏ

ＣｈａｎｇｅｓｉｎＢｕｓｉｎｅｓｓ/EｔｈｎｉｃＮｅｔｗｏｒｋｓ ThccthnicChinese,foundpracticallyineverycor- neroftheglobe,makeupanestilnated35millioni、

population（excludingHongKongandTaiwan）of which80percentarelocatedinEastAsia（seeTable ３）．ThcirprcsenceismuchstrongerintheSouth-

eastU]anNortheastAsia・OverseasChinescorGhua ch，iao，ｉｓａｌｓｏｒｅｆｅｌｒｅｄｔｏａｓｔｈｅＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｄｉaspora

Exll《TTnng 111亡胎８１漣InuXIJDrl】11arl Iｪ､DDI【111幽counInP CI1nnIzc(兜）

B[Ishn鱈$(1995..200：) ２凶Iar2cstm8u1

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Phi1iPpin世H MzuIzwHi81 p

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】【｡､H1〈《ｌｎＲ CI1inn

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東アジアにおける経済地域化：動向とプロセスの展開 ^8３

Havingsaidthat，theethnicChinesearestrong economicplayersandtheirllistoricalinvolvementln tradeandbusinessinevitablymakesthemamaJor fOrcetoｂｅreckonedwithMostbegintheirbusi‐

nessesasfamily-ownedsmall-andmedium-sizeden- terprlsesandwhilesomestillremalnassuch，others donotChen,sl995surveyfOundthatfamily-run firmswereimpressivelyhighinMalaysiabutwere moremixedbetweenfamily-andnon-falmlyfinnsln HongKongandSingapore,４５Familyfeuding，

Western-styleeducation，smallerfamilysizeandthe restrictivenatureoffamily-finnsareamonｇｔｈｅｆac- torschangingthewayethnicChineseentrepreneurs runtheirbusinessesTheAsiancrisishasbeenan

lmportantwake-upcalltotheChinesetorestrucmre，

bemoretransparentandadheretogoodcolporate governancetokeepupwiththechangingtidesof

globalizationandsucceedinapost-crisisera､４６

Networkinglsanessentialattributeofoverseas Chineseen位epreneurs、ＯｆｔｅｎｒｅｆｅｒｒｅｄｔｏａｓｔｈｅＧｂａｍ－

ｂｏｏnetwo]ｋ,，theyconducttheirbusinessesthrough aseriesofinfbmla]/personalizednetworksbyestab- lishingc]oserelationshipswithotherscalledGquanxi,，

basedinitiallyonftlctorssuchaslanguagesimilari- ties，kinship，clans，birthplaces，orschoolties，with networksgraduallygrowlngandexpandingovertime ThestrengthofChinesebusinessnetworkshas he]pedthemweatherchallengesandovercomehostile (ALza7e")．Intheiradoptedhomelands,theynaturally

establishtheirownconnnunitiesandmaintaintheir culturaltraditionscustomarilypasseddownfrom generationtogeneratiolLTosurv1veandprosper，

theydependontheirsocialtiesanｄｔｈｅａｂｉｌｉｔｙｔｏｎｅｔ－

ｗｏｒｋｗｉｔｈｏｔｈers・

Duetotheirknackfbrbusinesｓａｎｄtrade，the overseasChineseorGkakyou，inJapaneseoftenim- pliesethnicChineseasrichmogulsandhighlysuc- cessfUleconomlcactors､４２Thisisoneofmanymls- conceptionsthathamperlheproperunderstandiｎｇｏｆ ｔｈｃｉｌｒｏｌｅａｓ‘huach，iao，、Itisnotlmpossibleto identifysuccessftllethnicChinesebusinessmencon- sideringthelargepresenceofChinesediaｓｐｏｒａｓｌｎ ｔｈｅｒｅｇｉｏｎｂｕｔｉｔｗｏｕｌｄｂｅｎaivetoassumethatall kakyous，arerichandsuccessfultraders・Overseas Chineseareinfactheterogenousgroupsofpeople withdifferentculmraLIinguisticandreligioushabits andrivahyandcompetitionamongdlemarecom- monWhileMalaysianandSingaporeanChinese,ｆｏｒ example，stiUkeeptheirnamesandcontlnuetopre- servetheirculmralheritage，ＩndonesianandThai Chinesehaveassimilatedandlocalizedthemselves，

withmanynolongerspeakingMandarinorother ChinesedialectsJl3Thus，onemayviewtheethnic ChineseasGpeoplewhoareChinesebydescentbut whosenon-Chinesecitizenshipandpoliticalalle- g1ancecollapseancestralloyalties,.'４

TａｂＩｅ３ＯｖｅｒｓｅａｓＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｉｎＥａｓｔＡｓｉａａｎｄArlcestraIDiaIectGroups

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BrL1nciO､０５15,60NANANANANANA Thniland６．４５１０．６０７．０1.056.01６，０1２，０2.0 Myann1ar3.006.6530.020.050.0

Vie[nｍｍ1．００5.356.056.534.01.5２．０

１ndonesia７．４０3.5450.011.57.516.514.5 Cambodiaq403.442.010,077.03,0８．０

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Philippines

1０．０１５．０ 15.0１７０．０

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SouIhKorcalqO21ｑＯ５ＮＡ｜ＮＡ｜ＮＡ｜ＮＡ｜ＮＡ｜ＮＡ ^ＮＡ

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8４ 人間社会環境研究第13号２００７．３

bureaucraticenvlronmentsandtraｄｅｂａｍｅｒｓａｔｈｏｍｅ

ａｎｄａｂｒｏａｄＡｓＴｒａｃｙ＆Lever-Tracywrote,‘[t］he cnolmousstrengthofthcChinesediasporabusiness networkingistheabilitytomakehorizontallinkages

whentheverticalhierarchicalstructuresarenotnec-

essarilysupportiveoftheirbusinessendeavorsリ7

Businessassociationsarealsoacommoncharacteris-

ticofthcChinesebusinesscommunity・Throughsuch orgamzatlons，ｔｈｅｙｎｏｔｏｎｌｙａｒｅａｂｌｅｔｏｎｅｔｗｏｒｋａｎｄ broademheirbusinesscontactsbutalsoseekadvice andhelpwhenfncedwithtrouble・

Assucccssftlleconomicactors，especiallyinthc

industrializcdNm-3countries（HongKong,Taiwan andSingapore)，manylDdetheeconomicboomof

consecunveyears（l994andl995),JETROinc]uded

theiractivitiesinitswhitepaperreportsstatingthat theethniｃＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｓｈａｄｇｒｏｗｎｔｏａｓｔａge wheretheycouldnolongerbeignoredl81ndeed，thc figureswerecomparativelyhighFroml985tol992,

693percent（US$219billion）ofChina，ｓＦＤＩｉｎ‐

HowcamefromNIE-3ethnicChinese（mosUyHong

Kong,ｗｉｔｈＵＳ$l96billion）comparcdtolq6per-

centfrolnJapan・Ｉｎｔｈｅｓａｍｅｐｅｒｉｏｄ，ASEAN-4re- cordedhigherinvestmcntinflowsfromSingaporean，

HongKongandTaiwaneseChinese（２５percentor US$202billion,halffromTaiwan）thanfromJapa-

nese(212percentorUS$171billion);'9HongKong

andTaiwan，ｓＦＤＩｔｏＣｈｉｎａｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎｄｏｕｂｌｅdin

l993comparedwiththepreviousyear,５０

Thelargecontributionofthekakyouswasglven promlnencebyscholarsassuggestiveofthemightof Chineseconnectlonsandanemel･genceofancw Chinese-basedeconoｍｙｗｉｔｈａｌｅｖｅｒａｇｅｔｈａｔｆａｒｅｘ－

ceedsJapan，ｓ‘colTorateshoguns,.51JoumalistYoichi

FunabashisawtheGreaterChinaandChinesenet- worｋｓａｓｐａｒｔｏｆｗｈａｔｈｅｃａｌｌｓｔｈｃＧａｓｉａnization，of

Asia52Arguingonculturalgrounds，Huntington

wrotcthat：

GOutsideJapanandKoreatheEastAsianeconomy isbasicallyaChineseeconomy…OverseasChi- nesearemuchmoreablethaneitherWesternersor JaPanesetodobusinessinChina，InChinatrust andcommltmentdependonpersonalcontacts，not contractsorlawsandotherlegaldocuments・West- ernbusincssmenfinditeasiｃｒｔｏｄｏｂｕｓｉｎｅｓｓｉｎＩｎ－

ｄｉａｔｈａｎｉｎＣhinawherethesanctityofanagree- mentrestsonthepersonalrelationshipbetweenthe partieS・'5３

ThefigurcsunfortunatelydonotsupportHunting- ton，scontentionsThefactthatUSFDItoＣｈｉｎａｗａｓ

ｆＯｕｒｔｉｍｅｓｔｈａｔｔｏｌｎｄｉａｉn2004andJapanwas

mnked2nd（2004）aftcrtheUSasChina，slargest

hadepartnergoestoshowthatoverseasChinese havenotreallytakenovertheeconomicreignsnor havetheybecometheleadingintegrativefbrceinthe

region5ITheethnicChinesetooktheopportumtyto

lnｖｅｓｔｉｎＣｈｉｎａａｔａｔｉｍｅｗｈｅｎｏｔｈｅｒｆＯｒeigninvest- mentsplumｍetedamidsttheTiananmenincident、

Fromthemid-l990sonwards，though，investments fromotherfOreignnationalshavepickedupandare HowingsteadilyintoChina,colltributingtotheovcr- allfiguｒｅｏｆＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｉｎｗａｒｄＦＤＩ

Ｉｔｉｓｃｅｒｔａｉｎｌｙｔｒｕｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｂａｍｂｏｏｎｅｔｗｏｒｋａｎｄ quanxlarethepillarsofstrengthfbrtheChinesem U1eregionAsimilarlanguageandculmralaffinity doprovidethelubl-icantfbrdoingbusinessinChina・

However，ｔｈｅｒｅｉｓｎｏｅｖｉｄｅｎｃｅｔｏｐｒｏｖｅｔｈａｔｓｏclo- culturalchalactelisticshaveledtoslrongpositive identifIcationoraltruismbetweenmainlandandover- seasChinese・TheambitiousUS$155mil1ionSuzhou

IndushialPajk（SIP）prOjectbySingaporelsonc

clearexalnplc･Signedbetweenthetwogovernments

東アジアにおける経済地域化：動向とプロセスの展開 ^8５

Chinese，AnunderstatedftlctisthatetmicChinese，

especiallyinSEA，ｈａｖｅdemonstratedtheagilityto adaptandchangewhenfbrgingcloseconnectlons withnon-Chineseorcunyingfklvorwithpolitical eliteswhendeemednecessarytoexpandingtheil・

businessempires･However，therecenteconomiccri- sishasexposedcronycapitalismandChinesebusi- nessesbasedonshakygrounds，whichhasbrought aboutashiftinChinesecapitalismCalled‘hybrid capitalism,，YeungarguesthatChineseconglomer- atesinthereglonareinternationalizingtheirnet- wo]ｋｓ，movingbeyondtheChineseconclavesto- wardstransnationalentrepreneurshipandprofession-

alizingco1porategovemance，Westernstyle､５９All

theseaugurwellfbrChinesefirmsastheyadoptin- ternationalstandardsofmanagementandbecomepart oftheglobaleconomy・Regionally，theoverseasChi- nesenetworksarｅｎｏｔｔｏｔallyseparatedbutclosely linkedtotheregionalproductionnetwolks・

ＨｏｗａｒｅｔｈｅｙｌｉｎｋｅｄａｎｄｈｏｗａｒｅｔｈｅＣｈinese businessnetwoIksdifferentfromtheJapanesepro- ductionnetworks？ThecapabilityoftheethnicChi- neｓｅｉｎｂｕｓｉｎｅｓｓａｎｄｔｒａｄｅｉｓａｋｎｏｗｎｆａctTheir

businessnetworks（whetherintra-ethnicornot)have helpedthemtosurvlveandprosperunderextreme conditions・Theirinvestmentshaveanimpactonthe economieswheretheyinvest・Ｍｏｓｔｏｆｔｈｅｌａｒｇｅｅｔｈ－

ｎｉｃＣｈｍｅｓｅｅｎｔerprisesaretermedGdiversified，ｉｎ ｔｈａｔｔｈｅｙａｒｅｓｐｒｅａｄｏｕｔｔｏｃｏｖｅｒｖariousbusinessar- eas･Ｈｏｗever,theircoreareasaremainlycenteredon constructlon，propertiesandservlces・Ｆｏｒexample，

HutchisonWhampoaLtd，ｒａｎｋｅｄｔｈｅｈｉｇｈｅｓｔｏｆｔｈｅ ｔｏｐ５０ＴＮＣｓfTomdevelopingcountrieswithfbreign assetsworthUS$４８billionandownedbyLiKa- shing,hasdiversifiedinterestslnproperty,retaiLen-

ergy，portsandteleconInunications､6ｏＷｉｔｈａｔｅｎ－

ｄｅｎｃｙｔｏｌｏｏｋｆｂｒｓｈｏｒｔ－termprofits，thereisanincli- nauonamongethniｃＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｆｉｍｌｓｔｏｇｉｖｅｌｅｓｓｐｎｏｒ－

１tytomanuftlcturingindustrieswhichrequirelong- termlnvestment・Ｏｖｅｒ６Ｌ６ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆＨｏｎｇＫｏ､９，ｓ ofChinaandSingapore,ｔｈｅｐｒＯ]ectcameundercom-

petitionfrolnarivalSuzhouNewDistrictPark (SNDP）managedbytheSuzhoumunicipalitygov-

emment・TheirascibleLeeKuanYewcriticizedthe localofficialsfbrwhatheallegedtobefavoritismto- wardstheSNDPattheexpenseoftheS正.55QuanxL

ConftlcifmismandtheAsianvalueslhatLeeso

stronglyexpoundｅｄｏｎｄｉｄｌｉｔｔｌｅｔｏｈｅｌｐｔｈｅＳｉｎｇａｐｏ－

reansplantafbotholdonChina,ssoiLInthisin- stance，theuseofquanxlconnectionsdidnotleadto thedesiredresults・ＡｓＹａｏｐｕｔｓｌｔ，quanxiisana7r thatrequiresChineseactorstomasterthedelicate balancebetweentherequlrementsofindividualinter- estandlhoseofsocialconsideration，whichismore oftenthannotlncongmentandpracticallydifficultto realize56Considerthisscenarlo：

‘…aSingaporeanbusinessmanoftenfindshimself inadilemlnawhenaskedｂｙｈｉｓＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｃｏunter- partforspecialfavours-asｉｎｐｒｅｆｅｒｒｉｎｇｈｉｓｆａｍ－

ｉｌｙｍｅｍｂｅｒｓｏrrelativesinhinngorpromotlng woIkers・Toignoresuchrequestswouldunderｍｉｎｅ

ｔｈｅ８"α“andhamlthegα"qii"８［feclings,affec-

etyorfearsaboutthepotentialsofexploitationor

emotionalblackmnilHeisthuslockedintoadis-

satisfyingrelationshipbutcanfindnorelease・'5７

Therefbre,quanxl-oncehailedasculmrallyunlque asHuntingtonasserts-isfastloosingitslusterinthe ageofglobalizatiolLAsChinesesocietiesopenup andinternationalize，quanxiisbeingrelegatedtoa secondaryroleandinvokedmoresparinglywhenthe needarises58

Fu'thermore，quanxidefinedas6connection，may gobeyondthetraditionalinward-lookingexclusive andclosely-knittedChinesenetworkstoinvolvenon-

8６ 人間社会環境研究第13号２００７．３

outwarddirectinvestmentin2003isin‘investment holding，realestateandvariousbusinessServices，

andll5percentin‘wholesale,retailandimport/cx- porttrades,ｃｏｍｐａｒｅｄｔｏｏｎｌｙ５２ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｉｎ‘manu-

fncturi､9,.61Ａｓｓｕｃｈ，manufacmringactivityhasnot

mostlySMEsfbcusingonlower-endtechnology・

Ｔｈｏｓｃｗｈｏａｉｍｂｉｇｗｏｒｋｔｈｅｉｒｗａｙｕｐｔｈrough OEM/ODMcontractsandjoint-venturcsbutmorc oftenthannotbecomeheaviｌｙｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔｏｎＪａｐａ－

ｎｅｓｅＴＮＣｓｆｂｒｈigh-endtechnology・Thisinevitably incorporatespartoftheirbusinessnetworksintothe Japan-centeredproductionnetworksbytakingupthe supportiveroleofsupplierandcontractmanufacmrer・

Asnotedpreviously，SharpPhilippinessoul･cesabout 90percentoflocalprocurementfTomFilipilIoChi- neselnMalaysia,OrientalHoldings（thelateLoh

BoonSiew),HongLeonggmup（QuekLengChan）

andLiongroup(WilliamCheng）arelongtimepart-

nersofJapanesebrandmotorcycles-Honda,Yamaba andSuzukirespectively・Thestrongnetworkalliance betweenJapaneseTNCsandlocalethnicChincse networkswhichholdthekeytodomestlcmarketsis animportantfactorthathasaUowedJapanesePNsto expandandpenetratedeepintotheregionWith manuftlcturingmakingupthecorcofEastAsian lntra-trade，regionalproductionnetwo1kstakeprece-

dencG

OutstandingissueｓｒｅｍａｍａｓｔｏｗｈｅｔｈｅｒＪａｐａｎｅｓｅ ＴＮＣｓｃouldcontmuetomaintaintheirstrongpres-

ence・Ｔｗｏｉｓｓｕｅｓｃａｎｂｅｉｄｅｎtified・Tllefirstissuels ontheincreasingnumberofJapanesefirmsinvolvcd ｉｎＭ＆AandthegradualopeningofJapanesema1ket tofbreigninvestors・Cross-borderM＆Ａｓａｌｅｓｓｈｏｔｕｐ ｆｒｏｍＵＳ$２９millioninl988topeakatUS$16.4bil- lioninl999befbresettlingaｔＵＳ$lO9billionin

2003､O2Thisincludeshigh-profileacquisitionssuchas

RenaultofNissan，Daimler-ChryslerofMitsubishi MotorandVodafbneofJapanTelecomandJ-Phone M＆ＡｓａｌｌｏｗｆｂｒｅｉｇｎｆｉｎｎｓｔｏｔａｐｉｎｔｏｅｘclusiveJapa-

neseproductionnetworks，incolporatlngtheminto broaderglobalalliancesandpossiblyreducingtheir predominance､Ｏ３

ＴｈｅｓｅｃｏｎｄｉｓｓｕｅｌｓｏｎｔｈｅａｂｉｌｉｔｙｏｆＪａｐａｎｅｓｅ

ＴＮＣｓａｎｄｖａｒｌｏｕｓＳＭＥstomaintaintheircore manufacturingandtechnologica］edge・AIthough automatlonandcomputerizationhavebecomeindis- pensab]e，Japan，ｓａｄｖａｎｔａｇｅｉｓｄｕｅｔｏｉｔｓｌａｒｇｅｐｏｏｌ ｏfhighlyskilledlabor,Thesepeoplearenotonlyat thecenterofinnovationandcreativitybutefficient troubleshootersandproblemsolvers・UnfOrtunately，

ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｔｈｅｂａｂｙｂｏｏｍｅｒｓｗｈｏａｒｅｓｏｏntogolnto

retll-ement，Alowbirthrateandthelackofenthusi-

asmfbrscienceandmathematlcsamongtheyoung cou]dleadtoashortageofskilledworkerscapableof takingoverfromtheoldergeneration,Indeed,a2001 surveyofschoolchildrenfiomfifthgradeelemcntaly tothirdgradejuniorsecondaryfoundthatasgrade levelincreased，thebeliefthatscienceandarithmetlc arcimportantandusefUlinlifesharplydecreased､６４ TheJapaneseSMEswhichhavebeenthebackbone ofJapaneseindustrializationcouldbethehardesthit・

Thequestlonwouldthenariseastowhetherfbreign profbssionalscanｂｅａｌｌｏｗｅｄｔｏｂｅｐａｒｔｏｆＪａｐａｎ，ｓ guardedtechnologicalnovelty・Inotherwords，will nationalownershipcontmuetomatter？

ＣｏｎｃＩｕｓｉｏｒｉ

Thispaperhasbeenmainlyconcernedwiththe processcsofeconomicreglonalizationinEastAsia、

Motivatedbytheideathattherelsstillavagueun- derstandingofeconomicregionalizationandtherole playedbynon-stateactors，itaimstoanalyzethe changlngpatternsofregionaltradeandprovidca betterexplanatlonontheprocessesthatreHectthe contemporarypatternofeconomicactivitiesinthe EastAsianregion･Whiletheprocessesarevaried andinexhaustlve，keyfactorscentraltoregionaliza-

tionhavebeenidentified