98(3): 269-287 (1990)
Population History of Japan as Viewed from Cranial Nonmetric Variation
Yukio DODO and Hajime ISHIDA
Department of Anatomy, Sapporo Medical College
Abstract Incidence data of cranial nonmetric traits were analysed in eight population samples from Japan, ranging in age from 4,000 B.P. to the present time. The trait frequencies were extremely homogeneous in the Japanese samples during the last 600 years from early medieval to modern times when no significant gene flow from overseas was evident in Japan. It was inferred that the incidence pattern of cranial nonmetric traits faithfully reflected the Japanese genetic constitution of historic times. SMITH's Mean Measures of Divergence (MMDs) based on the incidence data of 20 nonmetric traits between the protohistoric and historic Japanese samples were statistically insignificant, whereas those between the Neolithic Jomon and the foregoing Japanese samples far exceeded the significance level of 0.01. The MMDs as well as the cluster analysis and principal coordinate analysis of MMDs suggested that (1) there existed population discontinuity between the Jomon and the protohistoric Kofun people; (2) the Aeneolithic Yayoi period was a phase when a number of different populations - natives and immigrants from the Continent - were struggling for their dispersals; (3) genetic constitution of the immigrants had predominated over that of the natives by the end of the Yayoi period and as a result the direct ancestral population of the modern Japanese was established during the protohistoric Kofun period. As for the Jomon and Ainu, their close affinity was demonstrated. Keywords Nonmetric trait, Skull, Incidence pattern, Population history, Japan
Introduction
On the origin of the modern Japanese two major hypotheses have been presented: the transformation theory and the immigration theory. The former claims that the Neolithic
Jomon evolved without admixture into the modern Japanese (SUZUKI, 1956a, 1963, 1969, 1981, 1983), while the latter postulates that immigrants from the Asian continent during the Aeneolithic Yayoi and the protohistoric Kofun
periods made a considerable contribution to the formation of modern Japanese (KANASEKI, 1956, 1959, 1966). Many of the recent cranio-metric and noncranio-metric studies as well as dental ones on the origin of the modern Japanese have yielded results in favor of the immigration theory (HOwELLS, 1966; YAMAGUCHI, 1982, 1985, 1987; HANIHARA, 1983, 1985; MIZOGUCHI, 1988; OSSENBERG,1986; MOURI, 1986; D0DO, 1986a, 1987; DODO and ISHIDA, 1988; KOZINT-SEV, 1990; TURNER, 1976, 1989; BRACE and Article No. 9005 Received April 10, 1990
270 Y. DODO and H. ISHIDA
NAGAI, 1982).
The latest cranial nonmetric studies have revealed that (1) the Jomon and Ainu are closely related with each other (DODO, 1983a, 1986a, 1987; OSSENBERG, 1986; MOURI, 1986, 1988; KOZINTSEV, 1990) and (2) the protohistoric Kofun and/or the Aeneolithic Yayoi are much closer to the modern Japanese of Mongoloid stock than to the Neolithic Jomon (YAMA-GUCHI, 1985; MouRI,1986; DOD0,1987; DODO and ISHIDA, 1988; KOzINTSEV, 1990). In this study, an attempt is made to reconstruct more systematically the population history of Japan in terms of cranial nonmetric traits, using eight cranial samples from Japan whose dates range from 4,000 B.P. to the present time.
Materials
Eight cranial series from Japan, ranging in age
from around 4,000 B.P. to modern times, were investigated for the presence or absence of cranial minor nonmetric variants. Sample sizes and prov-enances of these materials are listed in Table 1. The cranial series of the Yayoi, Edo, modern Japanese and Ainu are the same as those reported in our previous papers (DODO, 1974, 1975; DODO and ISHIDA, 1987, 1988). The Yayoi series examined in this study is generally considered to represent immigrants from the Continent and their offspring. It is derived from western Japan, while the remaining seven are from eastern Japan.
These cranial materials are from the collec-tions of Sapporo Medical College; Tohoku University School of Medicine; School of Medicine, Chiba University; the University Museum, the University of Tokyo; the National Science Museum, Tokyo; and the Faculty of Table 1. Materials examined
1),2),3),4): The same materials as reported in DODO and ISHIDA (1988)1), DODO (1975)2), and DODO (1974)3),x) or DODO and ISHIDA (1987)3),4)
Medicine, Kyushu University.
The investigation consisted of only adult crania. The sex determination of the crania from dissecting room subjects was based on their documents and that of the archaeologically excavated crania was made by our own morpho-logical observations.
Methods
The following 22 cranial nonmetric traits were examined for presence or absence.
1. Metopism* (For the criterion of trait judgment, see DODO, 1974)
2. Supraorbital nerve groove (Ditto)
3. Supraorbital foramen (Ditto and DODO, 1987)
4. Ossicle at the lambda* (DODO, 1974) 5. Biasterionic suture vestige (Ditto)
6. Asterionic ossicle (Ditto)
7. Occipitomastoid ossicle (Ditto) 8. Parietal notch bone (Ditto)
9. Condylar canal patent (Ditto)
10. Precondylar tubercle (DODO, 1975) 11. Paracondylar process (DODO, 1974)
12. Hypoglossal canal bridging (Ditto and
DODO, 1980)
13. Tympanic dehiscence (DODO, 1974) 14. Foramen ovale incomplete (Ditto)
15. Foramen of VESALIUS (Ditto)
16. Pterygospinous foramen (Ditto)
17. Medial palatine canal (Ditto)
18. Transverse zygomatic suture vestige (Ditto)
19. Clinoid bridging (Ditto)
20. Mylohyoid bridging (Ditto)
21. Jugular foramen bridging (DODO, 1986b) 22. Sagittal sinus groove left* (YAMAGUCHI,
1977)
* Median trait
All the data of presence or absence of cranial nonmetric traits were gathered by the senior author (Y.D.). For both bilateral and median
traits, incidence was detemined based on skull and pooled-sex sample. In the Japanese series of the Edo period, no observations have yet been made for traits #21 and #22.
Frequency differences of each trait between samples were tested by chi-square statistics. Distances between different cranial series were assessed by C.A.B. SMITH's Mean Measure of Divergence (MMD) and its standard deviation (SJ*VOLD,1973; YAMAGUCHI, 1985). In order to graphically represent mutual relationships of cranial samples, cluster analysis and principal coordinate analysis of MMDs were attempted. The group average method was used in the cluster analysis.
Incidence Data
Skull-incidences of the 22 traits in the eight cranial series from Japan are given in Table 2. The data of traits #21 and #22 are missing in the early modern Edo series.
Bilateral and unilateral trait occurrences in the cranial series of the Jomon, Kofun, Kamakura and Muromachi are shown for each sex in Appendix Tables 1-4. For those in the Yayoi, Edo, modern Japanese and Ainu series, see DODO and ISHIDA (1988), DODO (1975), and DODO (1974) or DODO and ISHIDA (1987).
Comparison
Incidences of each nonmetric trait were first compared between the cranial series of early medieval Kamakura, late medieval Muromachi, early modern Edo and modern Japanese. The significance of the frequency differences of each trait was tested by chi-square. As shown in Fig. 1, the differences are significant at the 0.05 level in two traits - the supraorbital nerve groove and the parietal notch bone. The frequencies of the two traits show a secular trend to increase. In the remaining 20 traits, however, frequency dif-ferences between the four series of historic
274 Y. DODO and H. ISHIDA
Japanese never reach the significance level of 0.05. The incidences of the supraorbital foramen and the hypoglossal canal bridging are sur-prisingly homogeneous in these four Japanese samples.
Table 3 shows the matrices of SMITH's MMDs and their standard deviations for the eight cranial series from Japan computed from the in-cidence data of 20 traits, with traits #21 and #22 excluded. The Jomon and Ainu are rather close to each other, but are consistently distant from the six other population samples. The Yayoi are much closer to the protohistoric and historic Japanese than to the Jomon and Ainu. The closest relationships are observed in pairs among the protohistoric and historic Japanese samples. The MMDs between Kofun-Kamakura, Kofun-Muromachi, and Kofun-Edo are insignificant at the 0.05 level. Those between Kamakura-Muromachi, Kamakura-Edo, Muromachi-Edo, Muromachi-Modern, and Edo-Modern are also insignificant at the 0.05 level.
Cluster analysis (group average method) was attempted for the MMD matrix of Table 3, with the negative MMD values obtained between Kofun-Kamakura and Kamakura-Muromachi being replaced by zeroes. The result is illustrated
in Fig. 2 as a dendrograph. In this dendrograph, two major clusters are discernible: Jomon-Ainu vs. Yayoi-protohistoric and historic Japanese. In the latter cluster, the Kofun, Kamakura, Muromachi, Edo and Modern are joined tightly with each other, while the Yayoi form a slightly loose connection with these protohistoric and historic Japanese saniples.
On the basis of the MMD matrix given in Table 3, principal coordinate analysis was carried out. The result is depicted three-dimensionally in Fig. 3. Proportions of the first, second and third principal components are 71.2%, 13.0% and 11.1 %, respectively. Also in this figure, the population samples from Japan are divided into two major groups: Jomon-Ainu vs. the remaining six samples. In the latter group, the Yayoi occupy a slightly deviated position from the protohistoric and historic Japanese samples which are lumped within a limited space.
Fig. 4 shows the result of the cluster analysis of MMDs extended for 12 cranial series consisting of eight from Japan and four from overseas . The incidence data of cranial nonmetric traits in those overseas samples as the Mongolian, Aleut, Alaskan Eskimo and Canadian Eskimo are given in DODO and ISHIDA (1987). Even in this figure ,
Table 3. SMITH's MMDs (left lower half) and their standard deviations (right upper half) between the eight cranial series from Japan computed from frequency data of 20 traits
Fig. 2. Dendrograph of the eight population samples from Japan based on the cluster analysis of MMDs. JA: modern Japanese, ED: early modern Edo, MU:
late medieval Muromachi, KA: early medieval Kamakura, KO: protohistoric
Kofun, YA: Aeneolithic Yayoi, HA: early modern Hokkaido Ainu, JO: Neolithic
Jomon.
Fig. 3. Three-dimensional display of the result of the principal coordinate analysis of MMDs. JO: Jomon, HA: Hokkaido Ainu, YA: Yayoi, KO: Kofun, KA:
Kamakura, MU: Muromachi, ED: Edo, JA: modern Japanese.
276 Y. DODO and H. ISHIDA
Fig. 4. Dendrograph of 12 population samples from Japan and overseas based on the cluster analysis of MMDs computed from the incidence data of 20 cranial
nonmetric traits. CE: Canadian Eskimo, AE: Alaskan Eskimo, AL: Aleut, MO:
Mongolian, JA: modern Japanese, ED: Edo, MU: Muromachi, KA: Kamakura,
KO: Kofun, YA: Yayoi, HA: Hokkaido Ainu, JO: Jomon.
two major clusters are discernible: the one com-prising the Jomon and Ainu, and the other so-called classic Mongoloids from East Asia and North America. The Mongoloid cluster is further divided into two subclusters: North American Mongoloid group and East Asian one. Inside the East Asian Mongoloid subcluster, the Mongolian connect at some distance with the protohistoric and historic Japanese samples, and the Yayoi join them at a still lower level of affinity.
Discussion
Within Population Homogeneity and Between Population Variability
In Table 4, nine cranial measurements are compared between four male Japanese series of historic times. These craniometric data are quoted from SUZUKI et al. (1962). The cranial series of the Kamakura, Muromachi and Edo periods are almost the same as those examined in this study.
Differences in measurements between samples were tested by the analysis of variance. The results are that in seven of the nine cranial measurements the differences between the four Japanese samples are significant at the 0.05 level. However, these results are not surprising, because it has been clarified that secular changes in cranial measurements are conspicuous even during the last 600 years from early medieval to the present time when no significant gene flow from overseas was evident in Japan (SUZUKI, 1956b, 1963,
1969, 1981; SUZUKI et al., 1962).
In contrast to these cranial dimensions, most of the cranial nonmetric traits show a remarkable homogeneity in frequency within the same time span of historic times in Japan, as seen in Fig. 1. Perhaps this homogeneousness of trait in-cidence is a reflection of the unchanged genetic constitution of the Japanese population during the last 600 years.
Table 4. Secular changes of main cranial measurements in male Japanese series of historic timesl)
1) Craniometric data are given in SUZUKI et al. (1962) * Significant at the 0 .05 level
Table 5. Chi-square test for homogeneity of trait incidence among four Mongoloid cranial series from East Asia and North Americal)
1) Skull-incidences in the cranial series of modern Japanese, Mongolian, Aleut and Alaskan Eskimo were tested
278 Y. DODO and H. ISHIDA
Table 5 shows the results of the chi-square test for homogeneity of trait incidence among four Mongoloid populations. The cranial series of the modern Japanese, Mongolian, Aleut and Alaskan Eskimo were used for this analysis. The null hypothesis of trait-frequency homogeneity among the four Mongoloid populations is re-jected at the 0.05 significance level in as many as
15 of the 22 traits. Therefore, population vari-ability in occurrences of cranial nonmetric traits is obvious even in rather closely related Mongoloid populations from East Asia and North America.
Such properties of cranial nonmetric trait
occurrence as "within population homogeneity and between population variability" have been demonstrated also in different cranial samples (OSSENBERG, 1976), and thus they can be con-sidered to provide good evidence for the effective-ness of cranial nonmetric traits in discriminating between closely related skeletal populations. Discriminating Power of Each Trait
The results of cluster analysis and principal coordinate analysis indicated a dichotomy between the Jomon and Ainu on the one hand and the protohistoric and historic Japanese on the other (Figs. 2 and 3). Accordingly, the cranial
Table 6. Contribution of each trait to the total measure of divergence between the Jomon-Ainu series and the pooled Japanese series
1) Skull-incidences are given
2) The cranial series of Kofun, Kamakura, Muromachi, Edo and Modern Japanese are pooled 3) Measure of divergence defined as
series of the Jomon and Ainu, and those of the Kofun, Kamakura, Muromachi, Edo and modern Japanese were combined respectively to make two major cranial series: Jomon-Ainu and protohistoric-historic Japanese. Then, between the two cranial series, the measure of divergence by each trait and its contribution to the total measure of divergence were calculated, as shown in Table 6.
In discriminating between the Jomon-Ainu series and the pooled Japanese series, the following five traits are more effective:
Supraorbital foramen 22.1%
Transverse zygomatic suture vestige 18.6°1o
Mylohyoid bridging 10.6%
Hypoglossal canal bridging 9.1%
Medial palatine canal 8.4%
Although the senior author previously con-sidered supraorbital foramen and hypoglossal canal bridging most effective in discriminating between various racial groupings of man (DODO,
1987), the present study shows that the contribu-tion of hypoglossal canal bridging is not as great as those of transverse zygomatic suture vestige and mylohyoid bridging. In this connection, it is noteworthy that supraorbital foramen and trans-verse zygomatic suture vestige, rather than hypoglossal canal bridging, have been dem-onstrated to be especially powerful in differentiating between various Mongoloid populations (KOZINTSEV, 1990).
Population History of Japan
It is obvious from Table 3, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 that the protohistoric and historic population samples from Japan are very closely related with each other. The MMDs between protohistoric Kofun - early medieval Kamakura, Kamakura - late medieval Muromachi , Muromachi - early modern Edo, and Edo - modern Japanese are insignificant at the 0.05 level. Thus these protohistoric and historic Japanese samples are considered to belong to a single population. The
close relationship between the Kofun and the modern Japanese has already been demonstrated based on cranial nonmetric variations (YAMA-GUCHI,1985; MOURI,1986; D0DO,1987). Con-sequently, from the evidence of cranial nonmetric variations it is asserted that the first emergence of the modern Japanese physical constitution dates back to the protohistoric Kofun age.
On the other hand, since all the MMDs between the Neolithic Jomon and the foregoing Japanese samples far exceed the significance level of 0.01, it is reasonable to regard them as derived from two different populations: the Jomon and Japanese. The results of cluster analysis and principal coordinate analysis support this view (Figs. 2, 3 and 4), and similar results have been reported in other cranial nonmetric studies (YAMAGUCHI, 1985; OSSENBERG, 1986; MouRI, 1986; DODO, 1986a, 1987; DODO and ISHIDA, 1988; KOZINTSEV, 1990).
In view of such properties of cranial nonmetric variation as "within population homogeneity and between population variability", as described before, it can be postulated that the dichotomy observed between the Jomon on the one hand and the Kofun and their descendents on the other is due to population discontinuity caused prob-ably by immigration from the Continent during the Aeneolithic Yayoi and/or the protohistoric Kofun periods. This view is roughly consistent with the immigration theory proposed by KANASEKI (1956, 1959, 1966) and is considerably different from the transformation theory of SUZUKI (1956a, 1963, 1969, 1981, 1983) who claims that the Jomon evolved without admixture into the Kofun and finally the modern Japanese of the greater part of Japan.
The cranial series of the Yayoi examined in this study is generally accepted as being com-prised of immigrants from the Continent and their offspring. In the cluster analysis, it joins the cluster of the protohistoric and historic Japanese
280 Y. DODO and H. ISHIDA
samples at a somewhat low level of affinity (Figs. 2 and 4). The MMDs between the Yayoi and the protohistoric or historic Japanese samples are all significant at the 0.01 level. This means that the schema for the post-Jomon population history of Japan, Yayoi * Kofun *modern Japanese, advocated in our previous papers (DODO, 1987; DODO and ISHIDA,1988) may be oversimplified. Perhaps the population history from the Yayoi to the Kofun period was more complicated.
In Japan, excluding Hokkaido and Okinawa, two types of Yayoi skeletal remains are recog-nized. The first type which resembles the Jomon in osteological characteristics and thus is con-sidered to represent native inhabitants of Japan has been discovered in such districts as north-western Kyushu, southern Kyushu, Shikoku, Chugoku, Kinki, and Kanto (NAIT0, 1971, 1981, 1984; KANASEKI, 1959, 1966; Dol and TANAKA, 1987; NAKAHASHI et al., 1989; YAMAGUCHI, 1979; MATSUSHITA, 1987; IKEDA, 1988; SUZUKI, 1963, 1969; KOIZUMI and IMAMURA, 1983). The second type, more or less similar to the physical constitution of Asiatic Mongoloid and regarded as comprising immigrants from the Continent and their offspring, has been found in the northern Kyushu, Chugoku, Kinki, and Tokai districts (USHIJIMA, 1954; KANASEKI, 1956, 1959, 1966; NAGAI, 1977; NAKAHASHI et al., 1985; KANASEKI et al., 1960: NAGAI et al., 1985; BABA et al., 1990; IKEDA, 1988; EHARA and OGATA,1989). Moreover, the Yayoi skeletal remains exhibiting mosaic features of the above two types have been unearthed from several sites in western Japan (MATSUSHITA, 1987; IKEDA, 1988).
From these findings, it is inferred that the skeletal remains of the Yayoi period from various sites in Japan show considerable diversity in morphological characteristics, and this diversity must have been caused by such factors as isola-tion and microevoluisola-tion on the one hand and
immigration and hybridization on the other. In the population history of Japan, the Yayoi period may be a phase when a number of different populations were competing with each other for their gene dispersion. Since our data of cranial nonmetric variations indicate a close relationship of the second type of Yayoi people to the proto-historic and proto-historic Japanese (Figs. 2, 3 and 4), it can be supposed that the genetic constitution of the immigrants from the Asian continent had predominated over that of the natives in various parts of Japan by around the end of the Yayoi period and as a result the direct ancestral popula-tion of the modern Japanese was established during the Kofun period.
As for the Jomon and Ainu, their close affinity with each other has been noted by craniometric studies (HOWELLS, 1966; YAMAGUCHI, 1967, 1973, 1974, 1982; DODO,
1982; HANIHARA, 1983, 1985), by dental morphology (TURNER, 1976; BRACE and NAGAI, 1982; MATSUMURA, 1989), and by cranial nonmetric studies (DODO, 1983a, 1986a, 1987; DODO and ISHIDA, 1988; OSSENBERG, 1986; MOURI, 1986, 1988; KOZINTSEV, 1990). Although the same result is obtained in this study (Figs. 2, 3 and 4), the MMD between the Jomon and Ainu is significant at the 0.01 level. Therefore, in spite of their close affinity, they must be regarded as constituting two different populations. However, the recently discovered skeletal remains of the Epi-Jomon period in Hokkaido, contemporary with those of the Yayoi and Kofun periods in the mainland of Japan, have been disclosed to be transitional in morpho-logical characteristics from the Jomon to the Ainu (OBA et al.,1978; DOD0,1983b; DODO et al., 1990). Accordingly, the Jomon people, especially those living in the northeastern part of
Japan, must have progressed via the Epi-Jomon phase to the modern Ainu through either microevolutionary process or admixture with
their neighbors.
Acknowledgments
We are deeply indebted to Dr. Takeru AKAZAWA, Department of Anthropology and Prehistory, the University Museum, the University of Tokyo and Dr. Bin YAMAGUCHI, Department of Anthropology, National Science Museum, Tokyo for permission to investigate the cranial materials under their care.
This study was supported in part by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research, Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (No. 62304012) and Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Areas, Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (No. 01643006).
抄 録 頭骨 の非計 測 的小 変 異 か らみ た 日本 の ポ ピュ レー シ ョ ン・ヒス トリー 百 々幸 雄 ・石 田 肇 縄 文 人171例,土 井 ヶ浜 を主 体と す る渡来 系 弥 生 人 153例,古 墳 時代 人276例,鎌 倉 時代 人220例,室 町 時 代 人124例,江 戸 時代 人194例,現 代 日本 人180例 お よ び北 海 道 ア イ ヌ187例 の 頭骨 に つ き,22項 目(た だ し江戸 時 代 人 に つい て は20項 目)の 形 態小 変 異 の出現 頻 度 が調 査 され た(表1,表2).こ れ ら8グ ルー プの 資 料 の 出 自は,弥 生 人 を 除 い て すべ て東 日本 で あ る. まず,鎌 倉 時 代 人,室 町 時代 人,江 戸 時代 人,お よ び 現代 日本 人 につ い て,形 態小 変 異 の出 現 頻 度 を比 較 した がX2検 定 で 有 意差 が検 出 され た の は,22項 目 中 わ ず か2項 目 に お い てで あ った.こ の こ とか ら,頭 骨 の形 態小 変異 の出 現 頻度 は,骨 格 の計 測 的 特徴 と異 な り,日 本 の歴 史 時 代 を通 じて ほ とん ど不 変 で あ っ た こ とが明 らか に され た. 次 に,20項 目の 出現 頻度 に基 づ い てス ミス の平 均 距 離 を算 出 した が,古 墳 時代 か ら現 代 にい た る ま での 日 本 人 グル ー プ 間の 距離 は いつ れ も小 さ く,有 意 で ない ものが ほ とん どで あ っ た(表3).し た が っ て,こ れ ら 日 本 人 グル ー プ は単 一集 団 に属 す る と見 な さ れ た.こ れ に対 して,縄 文 人 お よび北 海 道 ア イヌ と上記 の 日本 人 グル ー プ との距 離 は いづ れ も明 らか に有 意 で あ っ た. さ ら に,ス ミス の距 離 に対 して クラ ス タ ー分析 と主 座 標 分析 を行 な っ て み た が,そ の結 果,調 査 した8グ ル ー プ は大 き く2つ の ク ラス タ ー に分 割 され た.す な わ ち,縄 文 ・ア イ ヌ群 と弥 生 ・古 墳 ・歴 史時 代 日本 人 群 とで あ る(図2,図3).後 者 の ク ラス ター 内 で は,古 墳 時代 か ら現代 まで の諸 グル ー プ は非 常 に密接 に関 連 して お り,現 代 日本 人 の人 類 学 的 特徴 は古 墳 時 代 まで 遡 れ る こ とが 強 く示 唆 さ れ た.渡 来 系 の 弥 生人 も明 ら か に古 墳 時代 以 降 の 日本 人 グ ル ー プ に分 類 され るが, そ れ ら とは や や距 離 を置 く傾 向 に あ った.こ の傾 向 は, 国外 の資 料 も含 む12グ ル ー プ に つ い て行 な っ た ク ラ ス タ ー分 析 で も同様 に認 め られ た.す なわ ち,弥 生 人 は蒙 古 人 よ りも やや 遠 い距 離 で 古墳 時代 以 降 の 日本 人 グ ル ー プ と結合 して い た(図4).こ あ 結 果 は,渡 来系 の 弥 生 人 が 直接 古 墳 時代 人 に移 行 した とい う単 純 な モ デ ル化 は危 険 で あ る こ とを示唆 してい る よう に思 わ れ る. お そ ら く,弥 生 時 代 か ら古 墳 時代 に か け て の 日本 の ポ ピ ュ レー シ ョ ン・ヒス トリー は も っ と複 雑 な様 相 を呈 して い た もの と考 え られ る.し か し,本 研 究 の結 果 か ら判 断 す る 限 りにお いて は,弥 生 時代 の渡 来 系 の集 団 が 基本 にな っ て,古 墳時 代 に現代 日本 人 の原 型 が 成 立 し た と考 察 す るの が 妥 当 で あ る よ う に思 わ れ た. 縄 文 人 と北 海 道 ア イ ヌの 関係 に つ い て は,我 々 の従 来 か ら の主 張,す な わ ち縄 文 人 一特 に東 日本 の縄 文 人 の ア イ ヌへ の移行,が 繰 り返 さ れ た. References
BABA, H., N. SHIGEHARA and K. HANIHARA, 1990: Human skeletal remains of Yayoi period from the
Karako-Kagi site in Nara (abstract). J. Anthrop. Soc.
Nippon, 98: 181.
BRACE, C.L. and M. NAGAI,1982: Japanese tooth size: Past and present. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 59:
399-411.
DODO, Y., 1974: Non-metrical cranial traits in the Hokkaido Ainu and the northern Japanese of recent
times. J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 82: 31-51. DODO, Y., 1975: Non-metric traits in the Japanese
crania of the Edo period. Bull. Natn. Sci. Mus., Ser.
D, 1: 41-54.
DODO, Y., 1980: Appearance of bony bridging of the hypoglossal canal during the fetal period. J. Anthrop.
Soc. Nippon, 88: 229-238.
DODO, Y., 1982: A metrical analysis of Jomon crania from the Tohoku district. J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon,
90 (Suppl.): 119-128. (In Japanese with English
summary)
DODO, Y., 1983a: Jomon people in eastern Japan viewed from the incidence of non-metric minor cranial
282Y.DODOandH.ISHIDA
variants (abstract). Acta Anat. Nippon., 58: 423. (In Japanese)
[百々幸 雄,1983:頭 蓋 の形 態小 変異 か らみ た東 日本 の縄 文 時 代 人 一予 報(抄).解 剖 学 雑 誌,58:423.]
DODO, Y., 1983b: A human skull of the Epi-Jomon period from the Minami-Usu-Six site, Date,
Hokkaido. J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 91: 169-186. DODO, Y., 1986a: Metrical and non-metrical analyses
of Jomon crania from eastern Japan. In: AKAZAWA,
T. and C.M. AIKENS, eds., Prehistoric Gatherers in Japan. Univ. Mus., Univ, of Tokyo,
Bull., 27, Univ, of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 137-161,
pls. 1-3.
DODO, Y., 1986b: Observations on the bony bridging of the jugular foramen in man. J. Anat., 144:153-165. DODO, Y., 1987: Supraorbital foramen and hypoglossal
canal bridging: The two most suggestive nonmetric cranial traits in discriminating major racial groupings
of man. J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 95: 19-35. DODO, Y. and H. ISHIDA, 1987: Incidences of
metric cranial variants in several population samples
from East Asia and North America. J. Anthrop. Soc.
Nippon, 95: 161-177.
DODO, Y. and H. ISHIDA, 1988: Nonmetric analyses of the Doigahama crania of the Aeneolithic Yayoi
period in western Japan. In: Nippon Minzoku-Bunka
no Seisei 1. Rokko Shuppan, Tokyo, pp. 127-142. (In Japanese with English summary)
DODO, Y., N. OHSHIMA, H. 1SHIDA, M. KIDA and H. MATSUMURA, 1990: Human skeletal remains
from Usu-Moshiri site, Date, Hokkaido (abstract). J.
Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 98: 180. (In Japanese)
[百々 幸 雄 ・大 島直 行 ・石 田 肇 ・木 田雅 彦 ・松 村 博 文, 1990:北 海道 有 珠 モ シ リ遺 跡 出土 の人 骨 に つ い て (抄).人 類 学 雑 誌,98:180.]
DOI, N, and Y. TANAKA, 1987; A geographical cline in metrical characteristics of Kofun skulls from
western Japan. J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 95: 325-343. EHARA, A. and T. OGATA, 1989: Human skeletal
remains from Shinmido (Yayoi-Era), Nishio-City,
Aichi (abstract). J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 97: 262. HANIHARA, K., 1983: Establishment of the modern
Japanese. Saiensu (Scientific American, Japanese
version), 13: 82-94. (In Japanese)
[埴 原 和 郎,1983:現 代 日本 人 の 成 立.サ イ エ ン ス, 13:82-94.]
HANIHARA, K., 1985: Origins and affinities of Japanese as viewed from cranial measurements. In: KIRK, R.
and E. SZATHMARY, eds., Out of Asia: Peopling the
Americas and the Pacific. The Journal of Pacific
History, Canberra, pp. 105-112.
HOWELLS, W.W., 1966: The Jomon population of Japan: A study by discriminant analysis of Japanese
and Ainu crania. Papers, Peabody Mus. Archaeol.
Ethnol., Harvard Univ., 57: 1-43.
IKEDA, J., 1988: Yayoi skeletal remains from the western Tokai, Kinki and Setouchi regions. In: Nippon
Minzoku-Bunka no Seisei 1. Rokko Shuppan, Tokyo,
pp. 19-33. (In Japanese)
[池田 次郎,1988:東 海西 部 ・近 畿 ・瀬 戸 内 の 弥生 時 代 人 骨.日 本 民族 ・文 化 の生 成1:永 井 昌 文教 授 退 官 記 念 論 文 集.六 興 出版,東 京,pp.19-33.]
KANASEKI, T., 1956: The question of the Yayoi people. In: Nippon Kokogaku Koza, 4. Kawade Shobo,
Tokyo, pp. 238-252. (In Japanese)
[金 関 丈 夫,1956:人 種 の 問 題 日 本 考 古 学 講 座4:弥 生 文 化.河 出 書 房,東 京,pp.238-252.]
KANASEKI, T., 1959: The physical characteristics of Japanese in the Yayoi-period. Proc. 15th General
Assembly, Japan Medical Congress 1, pp. 167-174.
(In Japanese)
[金 関 丈 夫,1959:弥 生 時 代 の 日 本 人.日 本 の 医 学 の 1959年,第15回 日本 医 学 会 総 会 学 術 集 会 記 録1,pp. 167-174.
KANASEKI, T., 1966: People of the Yayoi period. In: Nippon no Kokogaku, III. Kawade Shobo, Tokyo,
pp. 460-471. (In Japanese)
[金 関 丈 夫,1966:弥 生 時 代 人.日 本 の 考 古 学III:弥 生 時 代.河 出 書 房,東 京,pp.460-471.]
KANASEKI, T., M. NAGAI and H. SANG, 1960: Craniological studies of the Yayoi-period ancients,
excavated at the Doigahama site, Yamaguchi
fecture. Jinruigaku Kenkyu, 7 (Suppl.): 1-36. (In
Japanese with English summary)
KOIZUMI, K. and K. IMAMURA, 1983: Human skeletal remains of the Yayoi period from the Iwatsubo cave
site in Gunma Prefecture (abstract). J. Anthrop. Soc.
Nippon, 91: 238. (In Japanese)
[小泉 清 隆.・今 村 啓爾,1983:群 馬 県 岩津 保 洞 窟 遺 跡 出 土 の 弥生 時代 人 骨 につ い て(抄).人 類 学 雑 誌,91
238.]
KOZINTSEV, A., 1990: Ainu, Japanese, their ancestors and neighbours: Cranioscopic data. J. Anthrop. Soc.
Nippon, 98: 249-269.
MATSUMURA, H., 1989: Geographical variation of dental measurements in the Jomon population. J.
Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 97: 493-512.
MATSUSHITA, T., 1987: Regional differences of the Yayoi people. In: Symposium Seinan Nippon-jin.
Kikan Jinruigaku, 18: 219-232. (In Japanese)
[松 下 孝 幸,1987:弥 生 人 の 地 域 性 シ ン ポ ジ ウ ム:西 南 日本 人.季 刊 人 類 学,18:219-232.]
MIZOGUCHI, Y., 1988: Affinities of the protohistoric Kofun people of Japan with pre- and proto-historic
Asian populations. J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 96: 71-109.
of Japanese populations as viewed from nonmetric traits of the skull. Doctoral dissertation. Kyoto University. (In Japanese)
[毛利俊 雄,1986:頭 蓋骨 の非 計 測 形 質 か らみ た 日本 列 島諸 集 団 の地 理 的 お よ び時代 的変 異.京 都 大 学 理 学 部博 士論 文.]
MOURI, T., 1988: Incidences of cranial nonmetric characters in five Jomon populations from West
Japan. J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 96: 319-337. NAGAI, M., 1977: Human skeletal remains. In:
iseki. Kawade Shobo Shinsha, Tokyo, pp. 379-382.
(In Japanese)
[永 井 昌 文,1977:人 骨.立 岩 遺 跡.河 出 書 房 新 社,東 京,PP.379-382.】
NAGAI, M., T. NAKAHASHI, N. Do!, Y. TANAKA and K. FUNAKOSHI, 1985: On the human remains from
Koura site, Shimane Pref. (abstract). Acta Anat.
Nippon., 60: 202. (in Japanese)
[永井 昌文 ・中橋 孝博 ・土 肥 直美 ・田 中良 之 ・船越 公 威,1985:島 根 県 古 浦 遺跡 出土 の弥 生 時 代 人骨(抄). 解 剖 学 雑 誌,60:202.]
NAITO, Y., 1971: On the human skeletons of Yayoi period excavated at sites in north-western Kyushu. J.
Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 79: 236-248. (In Japanese with
English summary)
NAITO, Y., 1981: Human skeletal remains of the Yayoi period. In: Jinruigaku-koza 5. Yuzankaku Shuppan,
Tokyo, pp. 57-99. (In Japanese)
[内 藤 芳 篤,1981:弥 生 時 代 人 骨.人 類 学 講 座5:日 本 人I.雄 山 閣 出 版,東 京,pp.57-99.]
NAITO, Y., 1984: The transition from the Jomon to the Yayoi skeletons in Kyushu. In: Jinruigaku.
Saiensu Sha, Tokyo, pp. 52-59. (In Japanese)
[内藤 芳篤,1984:九 州 に お け る縄 文 人 骨 か ら弥 生人 骨 へ の移行.人 類 学 一その 多様 な発 展 日経 サ イ エ
ンス社,東 京,pp.52-59.]
NAKAHASHI, T., N. DOI and M. NAGAI, 1985: Human skeletal remains of the Yayoi period from the
Kanenokuma site, In: The Kanenokuma Site.
Fukuoka City Board of Education, Fukuoka, pp.
43-145. (In Japanese)
[中橋 孝 博 ・土 肥 直 美 ・永 井 昌 文,1985:金 隈 遺 跡 出 土 の弥 生 時代 人 骨.史 跡 金 隈 遺 跡.福 岡市 教 育 委 員 会,PP.43-145.]
NAKAHASHI, T., N. DOI, Y. TANAKA and M. NAGAI, 1989: Human skeletal remains of Yayoi period from
Hirota site, Kagoshima Prefecture (abstract). J.
Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 97: 265.
OBA, T., S. MIZOGUCHI and B. YAMAGUCHI, 1978: Human skeletal remains from Etomo site, Muroran,
Hokkaido. Bull. Natn. Sci. Mus., Ser. D, 4: 1-23. (In
Japanese with English summary)
OSSENBERG, N.S., 1976: Within and between race distances in population studies based on discrete traits
of the human skull. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 45:
701-715.
OSSENBERG, N.S., 1986: Isolate conservatism and hybridization in the population history of Japan: The
evidence of nonmetric cranial traits. In: AKAZAWA,
T, and C.M. AIKENS, eds., Prehistoric Gatherers in Japan. Univ. Mus., Univ. Tokyo,
Bulletin, 27, pp. 199-215.
SJQ VOLD, T., 1973: The occurrence of minor metrical variants in the skeleton and their quantitative
treatment for population comparisons. Homo, 24: 204-233.
SUZUKI, H., 1956a: Human skeletal remains of the Jomon age. In: Nippon Kokogaku Koza, 3. Kawade
Shobo, Tokyo, pp. 353-375. (In Japaeese)
[鈴 木 尚,1956a:縄 文 時 代 人 骨.日 本 考 古 学 講 座 3:縄 文 文 化.河 出 書 房,東 京,pp.353-375.] SUZUKI, H., 1956b: Changes in the skull features of the
Japanese people from ancient to modern times. In:
WALLACE, A.F.C., ed., Men and Cultures. Univ.
Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, pp. 717-724. SUZUKI, H., 1963: Skeletons of the Japanese. lwanami
Shoten, Tokyo. (In Japanese)
[鈴 木 尚,1963:日 本 人 の 骨.岩 波 書 店,東 京.］
SUZUKI, H., 1969: Microevolutional changes in the Japanese population from the prehistoric age to the
present-day. J. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo, Sec. V, 3:
279-308, pls. I-Vu.
SUZUKI, H., 1981: Racial history of the Japanese. In: SCHWIDETZKY, I., ed., Rassengeschichte der
Menschheit. 8 Lieferung, Asien I. R. Oldenbourg,
Munchen, pp. 7-69, pls. 1-V11.
SUZUKI, H., 1983: The Root of the Japanese as Viewed from Skeletal Remains. Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo. (In
Japanese)
[鈴 木 尚,1983:骨 か ら み た 日 本 人 の ル ー ツ.岩 波 書 店,東 京]
SUZUKI, H., H. SAKURA, T. HAYASHI, G. TANABE and Y. 1MAI, 1962: Craniometry of the Japanese
skulls of the final Edo era. J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon,
70: 105-120. (In Japanese with English summary) TURNER II, C.G., 1976: Dental evidence on the origin
of the Ainu and Japanese. Science, 193: 911-913. TURNER II, CO., 1989: Teeth and prehistory in Asia.
Scientific American, 260(2): 70-77.
USHIJIMA, Y., 1954: The human skeletal remains from the Mitsu site, Saga prefecture, a site associated with
the "Yayoishiki" period of prehistoric Japan.
Jinruigaku Kenkyu, 1: 273-303. (in Japanese with
English summary)
284 Y. DODO and H. ISHIDA
study of the Ainu and the Australian Aborigines. Occasional Papers 10, Austral. Inst. Aboriginal
Studies, Canberra, pp. 1-73.
YAMAGUCHI, B., 1973: Multivariate analysis of Ainu craniometry (abstract). J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 81:
50-51. (In Japanese) [山 口 敏,1973:ア イ ヌ 頭 蓋 計 測 値 の 多 変 量 解 析(抄). 人 類 学 雑 誌,81:50-51.] YAMAGUCHI, B., 1974: Paleoanthropology in Hokkaido. Dai-4-Ki Kenkyu (The Quaternary
Research), 12: 257-264. (In Japanese with English summary)
YAMAGUCHI, B., 1977: A comparative study of the skulls of the Ontario Iroquoians and of Asiatic
populations. Bull. Natn. Sci. Mus., Ser. D, 3: 23-35. YAMAGUCHI, B., 1979: A human skeletal remain of Yayoi period from Shakameyama site, Ehime
fecture, Shikoku. Bull. Natn. Sci. Mus., Ser. D, 5:
13-30.
YAMAGUCHI, B., 1982: A review of the osteological characteristics of the Jomon population in prehistoric
Japan. J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 90 (Suppl.): 77-90. YAMAGUCHI, B., 1985: The incidence of minor
metric cranial variants in the protohistoric human
remains from eastern Japan. Bull. Natn. Sci. Mus.,
Tokyo, Ser. D, 11: 13-24.
YAMAGUCHI, B., 1987: Metric study of the crania from protohistoric sites in eastern Japan. Bull. Natn.
Sci. Mus., Tokyo, Ser. D, 13: 1-9.
Appendix Table 1. Bilateral presence (RL), unilateral presence (RO or OL), and bilateral absence (00) of cranial nonmetric traits in the prehistoric Jomon series
Appendix Table 2, Bilateral presence (RL), unilateral presence (RO or OL), and bilateral absence (OO) of cranial nonmetric traits in the protohistoric Kofun series
286 Y. DODO and H. ISHIDA
Appendix Table 3. Bilateral presence (RL), unilateral presence (RO or OL), and bilateral absence (OO) of cranial nonmetric traits in the early medieval Kamakura series
Appendix Table 4. Bilateral presence (RL), unilateral presence (RO or OL), and bilateral absence (00) of cranial nonmetric traits in the late medieval Muromachi series
* Median trait
百 々 幸 雄
Yukio DODO
札 幌医科大学解剖学第2講 座 〒060 札幌市 中央区南1条 西17丁 目
Department of Anatomy, Sapporo Medical College South 1, West 17, Chuo-ku, Sapporo 060, Japan
