THE
SYMBOL-SYSTEM
OF
SHINGON
BUDDHISM
(I)
by
Shozui
Makoto
Toganoo
INTRODUCTION
Shingon Buddhism, founded in the ninth century A. D. by Kukai (774-835), posthumously known as Kobo Daishi, has been one of the most influential Buddhist denominations in Japan. Recent census figures show
(1)
eleven million adherents and some twelve thousand temples.
The theory and practice of shingon Buddhism are generally based on tWO Buddhist scriptures that are commonly called the
Mahwai-rocana-(2) (3)
sutra and the Vajrasekhara-sutra. These two Buddhist scriptures,
not-(1) These census figures are based on the investigation by the Government of Japan. The exact numbers of temples, priests, a:nd adherents in comparison with other Buddhist denomations are:
(temples) (priests) (adherents)
Jodo line 30,925 44, 606 19, 053, 798
Nichiren line 6, 503 23,365 16, 356, 685
Shingon Sect 12,355 24,358 11,436,822
Zen line 2103 2%452 8,910,129
See, Asahi Nenlcan, or Asahi Year-book (Tokyo: Asahi Shimbun Sha, 1969), P. 555.
(2) The full title is the
Mahd-vairocandbhisambodhi-vikacrvitddhisthdna-vaipulya-sfitrendra-raja-ndrna-dharma-parydya. This sutra was translated into Chinese by
Subhakara-simha (637-735) in 724-725 A. D. It is assumed by Japanese scholars
that this sutra was compiled in the early seventh century in the western part of
India. It consists of seven volumes and thirty-six chapters, of which the first six
volumes are the text and the seventh gives concrete instructions for worship. It is
collected in the Taisho Jripitaka Vol. 18, No. 848. In India and Tibet, this sutra is
classified into the group of Carya-tantra, in which both external ritualistic practices
and internal yoga practices are regarded equally in importance.
(3) The full title is the Sarva-tathagata-tattva-sa hgraham ndma Mahdydna-sutra
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withstanding that they are called sutras in the Sanskrt version, are firmly classified as tantras (Tibetan. rqyud) by the Tibetans because these sutras
(4)
have distinctively tantric feautres.
The Buddhism based on these two tantric scriptures is generally called Mantra-ydna, which, according to Shashibusan Dasgupta, "seems to
be the introductory stage of Tdntric Buddhism, from which all other
offshoots, like Vajra-ydna, Kdlacakra-ydna, Sahaja-ydna, etc., arose in
(5) later times."
This Mantra-yana was introduced to Japan by way of China, and through the genius of Kukai, it was systematically organized as the "secret" Buddhism in contrast to the other forms of Buddhism existing during the Nara Period (710-784 A. D.) of Japan, and was termed "Shingon Mikkyo (Shingon, the 'secret' doctrine)."
Shingon Buddhism thus historically formulated has three distinctive
(6)
features, i. e., buddhistic, tantric, and "Sino-Nipponie." All Japanese
(The Mahayana sutra called "Symposium of Truth of all the tathagatas). This sutra is usually called the Tattva-sarhgraha by European and Indian scholars; however, in Japan, it is commonly called the Kongo-cho-gyo (the Vajra-sekhara-sutra) (Chinese. Chin-kang-ting-thing) or the "First Meeting of Kongo-cho-gyo. In this paper, we shall call it the Va jrasekhara-sutra. This sutra was translated into Chinese by Amoghavajra (705-774 A. D.), and collected in the Taisho Tripitaka vol. 18, No. 865. It is assumed by Japanese scholars that this sutra was compiled in the latter half of the seventh century A. D., in South India. In India and Tibet, it is classified in the group of Yoga-tantra, in which the internal yoga practices are more essential than the external
ritualistic practices.
(4) Among the various definitions or interpretations of tantra and tantric made
by European and Indian scholars, that of Snellgrove is thought adequate and will be
a good guide to our coming inquiry. On tantra and sutra, see, D. L. Snelllgrove,
Buddhist Himndlaya (Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1957), p. 55. On tantric, see ibid., p. 51.
n. a.
(5) Shashibusan Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults as Background of Bengali
Literature (Calcutta: Calcutta University press, 1946), p. 17.
(6) The term is the adjectival form of "Sino-Nippon" meaning "Chinese-Japan:
By the usage of the term "Sino-Nipponic" we emphasize some modification made in China and Japan.
Buddhist denominations have buddhistic and "Sill o-INTipponic" features, but the tanti-ic feature is peculiar to Shingon Buddhism.
The idiosyncrasy of Shingon Buddhism as a form of Japanese
Buddhism is mainly due to this distinctive tantric feature, and on this
account, Shingon Buddhism, being regarded as heretical or as having a
superstitious nature, has been treated like a stepchild by Buddhist scholars
other than those of Singon Buddhism. In other words, Shingon Buddhism
has been interpreted or validated by the "norm" of what Buddha's teaching ought to be or ought not be.
The study of Shinggon Mikkyo in Japan has a long history of over one thousand years; however a large percentage of the studies were restricted to the exegetics of the writings of Kukai; and they were, more or less, self-defense against the criticism of other Buddhist scholars.
Within the last thirty years, the philological studies based on Sanskrt and Tibetan sources have rendered great service to the understanding of
Shingon ilfikkyo. But now, unfortunately, there is a tendency toward
specialization. It may safely be said that the main concern of contemporary Shingon scholars is pure philological. research, and that it is doubtful
whether or not they have oriented themselves to the understanding of
Shingon Mikkyo.
We, the students of religion, being as objective and fair-minded as possible, should orient ourselves to the genuine understanding of Shingon Buddhism as a religion, because the purely philological study of religion without pursuing a genuine under standing of it is nothing but a pure art
or an empty fantasy, and because Shingon Buddhism is unquestionably a
religion which is more than one of the forms of Japanese Buddhism; it is also a "Sino-Nipponic" and buddho-tantric religion.
To understand this religion adequately, we shall pursue its several particular symbols or symbol-systems, because, as Dr. Hutchison says,
... religious experience demands and receives symbolic
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expression for itself. In any specific situation these symbols
are not symbols in general, but certain altogether concrete,
particular symbols, around whichh gathers a community of
(7)
people who express theirr ultimate concern through them. Shingon Buddhism has several particular symbols or symbol-systems.
The symbols in which Shingon Buddhism finds expression are not
symbols-in-general, not just any symbols. Rather, they are altogether
specific or particular symbols. Truly the particularity of the
symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism is an excellent way of pointing to the
particularity of Shingon Buddhism.
In the first place, we shall take "Shingon" of Shingon Mikyo, and inquire into the formation of the particular symbol Shingon in the history of India and in East Asia.
In the second place, we shall choose several other particular symbols, such as "Mudrd," "Samaya," "Sam-mitsu," "Roku-dai," and "Mandala,"
and examine the structure of these symbol-systems, then elucidate the
symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism as a whole.
We are convinced that the study of the symbol-systems of Shingon Buddhism will lead the way to understanding Shingon Buddhism as a whole.
PART I
HISTORICAL
FORMATION
OF
THE
PARTICULAR
SYMBOL
"SHINGON"
CHAPTER I. IN INDIA
(1)
1. General Remarks on "Shingon and sjzingons"
(7) John A. Hutchison, Paths of Faith, (New York: McGraw-Hill. Book Co.,
1969), P. 16.
(1) There is no apparent differencation of the term Shingon when we say "Sliingon of Amitabha" and "Shing
Shingon which literally means "true word" is, as its use as name of the Shingon Sect reflects, one of the most important symbols in the Sect. It is generally agreed that the term "Shingon Sect" is an abbreviation of "mantra-dharani sect" and Shingon (and shingons) corresponds to Mantra
(2)
(and mantras). The term mantra is translated in Chinese Buddhist scriptures
as then-yen (in Japanese shingon); however, it would be too hasty to
conclude from this that Shingon and shingons can be identified with
Mantra and mantras.
In the history of Buddhism, shingon has been called different
names such as vidya, paritra (Pali. paritta) and dharani, and also "Shomyo-nembutsu" (invocation of the name of Amida) in the Jodo Sects, and
"Odai -moku" (utterance of the sacred title of the Hoke-kyo) in the Nichiren Sect are related to shingon in its broad sense. Furthermore,
it is an essential symbol called Mandala in Sanskrt by Kukai, the
founder of Shingon Buddhism. In other words, shingon contains the
mantras (holy or mgic spell) of Brahmanism and Hinduism as well as the
Buddhistic magico-religious formulas adapted in China and Japan. In
contrast with the development from mantra to Mantra which had been
done in India concurrent with the syncretic process from Vedic mantra
to Tantric mantra, the development from mantra to Shingon has been
formulated in the acculturation process of Buddhism from India to
Japan by way of China.
countable and concrete shingon and the latter an uncountable and abstract Shingon
which is the essential and particular symbol of Shingon Buddhism. Therefore, we
need a preliminary agreement: i) to use an initial capital letter on some words other
than proper nouns, ii) by doing so, distinguish the words with an initial capital
letter from the words without it, and iii) to signify that the former is a word for
a religious symbol and the latter is its subordinate symbol. This agreement will
apply correspondingly to the following cases: Mantra and mantras, Mandala and
mandalas, Samaya and samayas, and so forth.
(2) E. g., cf. Minoru Kiyota, "Shingon Mikkyo Mandala," History of Religions,
(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press) vol. 8 no. 1 (August 1968) p. 31.
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The long and the short of it is that shingon called differently in Buddhism becomes a core and particular symbol as Shingon on the one hand, and on the other shingons remain as they are and become symbols as an approach (updya) towards Shingon. This historical process from Shingon to Shingon is an aspect of the religious formation of Shingon Buddhism, and the intention of Part I is this religo-historical formation of Shingon.
2. Mantra of Pre-Buddhism
The appearance of mantras which were translated chou (incantations), shen-chou (divine spell), chin-yen (true words) in Chinese tri-pitaka and gSan-snags (secret spell) in Tibetan tri-pitaka can be traced back to the
(3)
Vedic Period, which began with the Age of the mantras. The mantras in
the four Vedas have their own distinctive features: Roughly speaking,
the mantras of the Rg-veda are properly called hymns, or verses of
hymns, those of the Sama-veda songs, those of Yajur-veda prayers, and
those of the Atharva-veda magical formulas. The R g-veda contains about a thousand hymns and about thirty of them are the magico-religious hymns from which people expect worldly benefits, such as the cure of disease,
dislodgement of enemy, removal of danger, benefits of rain and for
(4)
victory. The Rg-veda also mentions the existence of spells among the
aboriginal Indians in the invocation by Vasistha, who is considered to
(5)
be the versifier of the seventh portion of the R g-veda. In the
Atharva-veda, dating by about the sixth century B. C. the magico-religious spells
based on aboriginal belief increased markedly and
... the mantras, ceasing to be prayers couched in intelligible
(3) Cf. K. W. Morgan (ed.) The Religion of the Hindus (New York: The Ronald
Press Co., 1953), pp. 28-30.
(4) Cf. Yukei Matsunaga, Mikkyo no Rekishi, or The History of Esoteric Buddhism
(Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1969), p. 17.
(5) Cf. L. A. Waddell, "The Dharani Cult in Buddhism, its Origin, Deified
language, became incantations of cabalistic stereo-typed (6)
formulas.
This tendency continued and the usage of mantras multiplied in the next Period. of Sutra (Aphorisms). The mantras of the twelve devas which occupy quite important positions in Shingon Buddhiism. were found here
(7)
and there in the Grhya-sutra (the Domestic Aphorisms). Many domestic rites and ceremonies such as birth-day, naming, grown, initiation, marriage,
(8)
etc. were performed with certain mnantras.
On the other hand, the idea of mantra, especially of bija-mantra,
(9)
developed allegorically, symbolically, and philosophically. In the Aranyakas, or "Forest Books,"
... even arbitrary alphabets Cof mantraj were taken up and it was believed that the meditation of these as the highest
(10)
and the greatest was productive of great beneficial results.
In the Chandogya Upanisad dating from the sixth to the
(11)
fifth century B. C.
The essence of the Samaveda in the Udgita (which is OM) That Udgita is the best of all essence, the highest,
(12)
Deserving the highest place, the eighth.
(6) Ibid., p. 162.
(7) The twelve devas are: Brahma, earth,znoon, sun, Indra, fire, Yama, raksas,
water, wind, Vai sramana (wealth), and Mahesvara (Siva). Cf. Max F. Miiller, (ed.)
The Sacred Books of the East, XXIX, (Oxford University Press, Impression of 1927),
p. 159 ff.
(8) Cf. Shown Toganoo, Afandara no Kenlvyu,or The Study of Mandala (Kyoto:
Naigai Shuppan-sha, 1958), pp. 436-437.
(9) Cf. Hakuji Ui, Indo Tetsugalru-shi, or The History of Indian Philosophies
(Tokyo: Iwanami, 1941), p. 10.
(10) Surendranath Dasgupta, A 11istory of Indian Philosophy (Cambridge: University Press, 1963), vol. 1, p. 35.
(11) Cf. ibid., p. 39 n. 1. also cf. L. Renou (ed.) Ifi ii d uis m (New York: George
Braziller,lnc.1961), p. 21.
(12) L. A. Govinda, Foititdattons of Tibetan Mysticism (New York: E.P.Dutton &
Co.) Inc., 1960), p. 21. T H E S Y M B O L -S Y S T E M O F S H I N G O N B U D D H IS M ( I )
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In the Maitrayana Upanisad which belongs to the latter Upanisad: ... OM is compared to an arrow with manas (thought) as its
point, which. is laid upon the bow of the human. body, and which, after penetrating the darkness of ignorance, reaches
(13)
the light of the Supreme State.
(14)
In the Mdndukya Upanisad dating between 300 B. C. and 200 B. C., Om is explained in this manner: Om is the whole of this visible universe. This universe is Brahman and Brahman is Atman, the Self. The Self has four feet (pada): the first is Vaisvanara, "The Common-to-all-men," whose field is the waking state (jagrat), and whose sound is A. The second is Taijasa, "The Shining One," whose field is the dream state (svapna), and whose sound is U. The third is Pra jl a, "The Knower, " whose field is deep sleep (susupti), and whose sound is Al. The fourth (turiya) is Silence
(15)
(amatra). This fourth state resembles the state of unqualified emptiness (sunyata) in Buddhism and therefore, Gaudapada (ca. 600-700 B. C.) made the IV-karika, which is considered to be the formulation of the
(16)
theory of Yajnavalkya based, on Buddhist theory.
3. Mantra of the Early Buddhism
The recitation of mantras performed for mundane purposes was
(17)
strictly prohibited by the Buddha Gotama (568-483 B. C.) for his followers. According to the Buddha, it is quite reasonable for the public to pursue worldly benefits, but not for his followers, because the primary purpose
(18)
of the people who entered Sah.gha should be a supra-mundane one. The
(13) Ibid., p. 22.
(14) Cf. Dasgu.pta, op. cit., p.39 n. 1 and Ui, op. cit., p. 148.
15 Cf. HIeinrich Zimmer, Philosophies of India ed. Joseph Campbell (New York:
Meridian Book, 1958), pp. 372-377, also cf. Govinda, op. cit., pp. 23-24 and Ui, op.
cit., pp. 148-152.
16 Cf. Ui, op. cit., p. 521, pp. 524-532.
17 Or (558-478) or (566-486)
statements of the prohibition are found everywhere in earlier Buddhist canons. The practice of mantra was regarded with contempt as a tiracchdna vijja (literally meaning the art or practice of animals) and which
(19)
constituted a minor offense such as pdcittika, dukkata. The expansion of
Sangha, however, gradually brought about permission for some mantras
for the purpose of protection, such as the mantras for tooth-aches, for
(20)
stomach aches, and against snake bite. Because these mantras were not
prohibited by the Buddha, soon they were practiced extensively among
the followers. What is called paritta in the Cullavagga, Anguttara Nikaya
(21)
or in KhadavattaJdtaka, is this kind of spell. Parittd (Skt. paritra) is the functional name of mantra.
In the Questions o f King Milinda (Milinda-panha), King Milinda
(22)
and Nagasena held a dialogue on the six parittds: Ratna-sutta (spell for good spirits on earth and heaven), Khandha-parittd (spell against snake), Mora-parittd (spell of the King Peacock), Dhajagga-parittd (spell for removing fear by the power of Indra), Atanatiya-parittd (spell of the King Yaksa, Vaisranaya entitled Atanatiya), and Angulimdla-parttd (spell preached to Angulimdla by the Buddha). Nagasena explained their raison d'etre.
Before long, in the Southern Buddhism, there were collected about thirty small sutras, such as the Mahdsamaya-suttam (Great Meeting sutra),
(19) Cf. Matsunaga, op. cit., p. 27 n. 2, also cf. Shoun Toganoo, flimitsu
Bukkyd-shi, or The History of Esoteric Buddhism (Kyoto: Naigai shuppan-sha), 2nd
edition. 1940. p. 6 p. 12.
(20) E. g. Taisho., vol. 23 p. 337 c. Taisho is the abbre-viation of: Takakusu and
Watanabe, edited. TaishO Shinshu DaizokyO, or The Chinese Tripitaka Newly Compiled
in the Taisho Age (Tokyo, 1922-1934) 85 volumes.
(21) Cf. Toganoo, Madnara no Kenkyu pp. 444-445; Waddell, op. cit., pp. 163-164;
Shoren Ihara, "Shojyo-ju to Mikkyo-keiten", or Paritta and Esoteric Buddhist Canon, The Chizan Gakuho, or Journal of Chizan Studies, no. 21 (April, 1957) (University of Taisho: Chizan Kangakukai 1957), pp. 24-37.
(22) Cf. Sacred Books of the East, XXXV. pp. 213-216.
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the Atanatiya-suttan, the Sarana-gamanam (Three formulas of refuge), the Metta-sutta h (Compassion sutra), the Da a-dharma-suttarn (Ten
(23)
dharma-sutra), etc. and were named Parittaln, the Protective Basket. Even now the name of parit remains in Ceylon and these spells are practiced extensively among the people for protection against evil spirits and
(24)
poisonous snakes.
Concurrent with the term paritta, the term vidyabegan to be used. The term vidyd (Pali. vijja) derived from the root vid (to know) means primarily "knowledge." The supernatural knowledge to cure disease or to catch snakes or to please the gods, etc. was vidya. And the man who has such knowledge was called Vidyadhara, the Holder of knowledge. The
(25)
images of Vidyadharas carved in relief on the gates of Bharhut which were constructed in the period of Asoka (ca. 250 B. C.) are, according to Basham:
... heavenly magicians, mysterious beings who lived in magic cities in the high Himalayas. Like the Vedic munis ... they could fly through the air and transformt hemselves at will,
(26)
and they were generally favourable to men.
To the people in those days, mantra was a holy or magical formula and
the practitioner of mantra was the Holder of supernatural power or
knowledge, i. e. Vidyadhara. Therefore, it is quite natural that mantra
was identified with vidyd. Vidyddhara used in Ceylon, according to
Waddel, denotes 'man performing wonders by the aid of mantras'. In addition to this, the term vidyd had special significance to Buddhists, because avidya (unenlightenment) -was a important teaching of the
(23) Cf. Toganoo, Himitsu Bukkyo-shi, pp. 8-9 and Waddell, op. cit., p. 159. (24) Ibid., p. 159.
(25) Cf. Waddell, op. cit., p. 171: also Toganoo, Mandala no Kenlcyu, pp. 431-432.
(26)A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (New York: Grove Press, 1959),
P. 318.
Buddha, and relief from avidya(enlighten ment). was vidyq(enlightenment). In the Prajnd-id-hrdaya-suta, a famous Mahaydna text, the mantra of "gate gate paragate parasafiigate bodhi svchd" is that of
Prajna-paramita and at the same time that of vidyrz. I have already stated that the
(28)
Saran.a-gamanarn. (Three formulas of refuge) was compiled. in Parittarh. Sarana-gainanamn consists in repeating the words: Bu ddhat saranaihz gacchanzi (I put my faith in Buddha), Dhammain saran-a,in gacchdmi (I put my faith in Dliarma), and Sanghain saranaTiz gacchO7ii (I put my faith in sangha). These three refuges are paritta and vidya as well. Waddell says:
The recital of the Trividya formula frequently repeated on
the rosary by Hinayanists, also the categories of attributes
of Buddha are supposed to exert a certain magical efficacy
(29)
which makes these practically spells.
Vidya is the qualitative name of inantra.
From about three hundred years after the death of the Buddha onwards, Vidyadhara-pitaka is considered to have been collected in Dharma-guptaka. This school of Buddhisn is belived to belong to the line of Sthavira (Theravada); however, it has five Pitakas, that is, Tri-pitaka (three baskets of sutra, vinaya and adhidhar7na), Vidyadhara-pitaka, and
(30)
Bodhisattva-pitaka; therefore, its teaching is more Mahdydziistic.
4. DhaT,ani in Mahayana Buddhism
Around the first century B. C. the term dhdrani began to be
applied to spells. the term dharani derived from the root dhn (to hold)
(31)
literally means "that by which something is held." This term. usually is
(28) See Part I. p. 10 (29) Waddell, op. cit., p. 171.
(30) Cf. Watanabe, Jyodai Indo bPilclcyo-shi, or The History of the Early
Buddhist Thought in India (Tokyo: Aoyama Gakuen, 1956), p. 98; Nlatsunaga, op.
cit., p. 32 and n. 5; Toganoo, 1ilandara no Iienkyu, p. 441; Toganoo, Hinnitsu Bukkyo-ski,
p. 8; and Waddell, op. cit., pp. 169-170.
(31) Shashibhusan Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults as huckgrounc of Bengali
Literature (University of Calcutta, 1946), p. 21.
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(32)
translated into Chinese as tswng-chih, which means "entire support." According to Nagarjuna's Mahapiajita-paranita-sasti a translated in Chinese by Kurnarajiva in 405 A. D., the term dlzarai is defined as nt ng-chili and ning-ehe. Mug-chip (ning=able to; power. chip-to hold, support) is
to hold the collection of various good teachings and does not allow them to disperse and get lost. Metaphorically speaking, when water is poured into a perfect vessel, it does not leak out. Wickedness is caused by an evil mind. Neng-chi (che=to protect) protects man form such causation. In short, the term dharagi means to hold good dharma and by doing so to protect oneself from evil.
The term dhaiani is used in Hinayana already. According to Waddell, ... The first occurence Csic) of this name, ...is in the epic
of the Lalita Vistara properly a Hinayana work...There amongst the great metaphysical Bodhisattvas is mentioned
The king of Dharani Lords' (Dharanzsvara-raja). This is a Brahmanist title of Siva as Lord of the World' and Dharani
(34)
is Laksmi as the Earth goddess,…
Alld in Adhidhdharaz, one of the Tri-pitaka of Hinayana Buddhisnn, it
indicates the mailltellance of one teaching, such as dhar-ayamza (olle
(35)
of twelve dyatatca, sense-data), saThskai'a (one of the five skandhas). In M_ahayana Buddhism, one chapter of the Abbreviated Version of Jlahaprajnaparamitd-sutra, the earliest Mahdyana text, is called by the
(36)
name of dizaraia. In Ajatasatru-sutra translated by Lokaraksa into Chinese
(37)
around 180 A. D., the term dhdrani indicates the foundation (yilan) of
(32) Cf. Ry6zaburo Sakaki, Mahd-vyutpatti (Kyoto: Rokudai, 1916), No. 4239
(33) Cf. Taisho., vol. 25, p. 269b.
(34) Waddell, op. cit., p. 172.
(35) Cf. Nagarjuna's Mahdpiajtaparaottd-saslra, vol. 5, Taisho., vol. 25, p. 269.
(36) Cf. Ryujo Yamada, Bongo-Bunten no Shobunken, or Various Bibliography of
Buddhist Sanskrt Texts (Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1959), p. 151, and Matsunaga, op. cit., pp. 32-33.
(37) Shinko Mochizuki, Bulckyo Kydten Seiritsu-shi Ron, or An Essay on the
(38)
Tao, and that of the maintenance of Buddha, Dharma, and Sanbha. In
the Hai-lung-wan cling translated by Indu-Dharmaraksa in 285 A. D. the
term dharaia is the conclusion of whole teaching, practices and samddhi
of Buddhism; and the dhdrani called "Limitless" is the foundation of
(39)
all eighty-four-thousand dlhaas-Here we can see a concrete dharani.
The exact reason why the term dhdrani was applied to spells is
beyond our knowledge. However, it is very covincing that the term
dhdrani was used identically with the term vidya-dhara and it is a
particular term of Buddhism. Waddell says:
... The term in this religious sense is not current in
Brahmanism and seem to have been coined by the Buddhists
as was their wont to distinguish their terminology from
their parent rival. Nor is there definite evidence of its
use in primitive Buddhism, where its recognized synonym
(40)
Vidya-dhara was employed.
The appearance of dharaii is considered to have a close relationship with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. Nagarjtzna (ca. 150-250 A. D.) states in this manner: In Sravaka-yana there are no dharanis but only in Mahayarla are they used, because Sravaka (the Hearers) do not hold various merits by using dhdra) as. Figuratively speaking, when man is thirsty, he contents himself with a cup of water and does not keep water
(41)
In a pitcher.
The "Limitless dhdrani" in the Hai-lung-uang thing consists of the arrangement of sixty-two topics (ship) such as "destiny responds to mind (hetu-niati)," "follow the mind (lama-rnati)," "please the foot-step (prasada-mati)," "straight mind (ujju-mati)," "glorious face," "bright eye," "nirvdna," "moon -light" and so forth. Indu-Dharmaraksa translated the
(38) Cf. Shinko Mochizuki, Bukkyo-dai-jiten, or the Great Dictionary of Buddhism,
3rd ed. (Tokyo: Sekai Seiten Kanko-kyokai, 1960), vol. 4, p. 3532.
(39) Taisho., vol. 15, p. 141b.
(40) Waddell, op. cit., p. 158.
(41) Mahaprajndparamitd-sastra, vol. 28, Taisho., vol. 269b.
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dhdrani into Chinese instead of transcribing the sound. At any rate, this
dharani consists of the chaotic arrangement of sixty-two important
(42)
Buddhistt terminologies. Dharais tranSliterated in the Dhara chaper
and the Exhortation Chapter of the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika-sutra)follow the same pattern of the above. The Fuler Edou of
Maha-(44) (45)
prajnapardmita-sutra or in the Avatannsaka-sutra, dharanis, ceasing the disordered arrangements of the words, use the forty-two letters (namadheya), through which their hidden significances are approached, for instance, "a" represents "adi-anutpdda (primacy of no birth)," "ra" "rajas (dust, passions)," etc.
(46) (47)
In the Mahaparuaua-sra or in lthe Gayazrsa-stra, fifty
letters of the Sanskrt Alphabet were used, and through the gates of
these letters the contents of the sutra were apprehended. In the
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Mahayana-karuna-putadarika-sutra (translated in 265-316), the basic teach-ings of the earlier Buddhism, such as catvari sinnityupasthana (the fourfold practice of kaya, vedana,citta and dharma), saptabodhyanga (seven characteristics of bodhi), dvadasanga-pratityasamutpada (twelve
(49)
principles), etc, aredenoted dy dhanis. In the Mahasamupa-sutra translated by Dharmaraksa (T'an wu-ch'an), the study of dliarani ranks equally with the three studies of Buddhism, i. e., sila, sarnddhi and
(42) Cf. Toganoo, Hiritsu Bukkyo-shi, p. 15, n. 31 and Toganoo, Mandara no
Kenkyu, p. 447; also Chou Yi-Liang, "Tantrism in China", Harvard Journal of
Asiatic Studies, vol. 8 (1944-1945), (Harvard-Yenching Institute), p. 242.
(43) Cf. Toganoo, Mandara no Kenkyu, p. 447. (44) Taisho., vol. 8, p. 256a.
(45) Taisho., vol. 9, p. 765b. (46) Taisho., vol. 12, p. 413a. (47) Taisho., vol. 14, p. 498.
48) Cf. Seigai Omura, Mikkyo Hattatsu-shi, or The Historical Development of Esoteric Buddhism, Tokyo, 1918, vol. 5, Appendix p. 3.
(49) Taisho., vol. 3, pp. 239-241,
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Prajna, and thus beeonle another orllaln.ellt of Bodllisattva. Ill the
JIaharatnakutaa-sutra translated by Bodhiruci in the T'ang dynasty, even
the ten stages of Mahdyana Bodhisattva have their respective gates of
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dhaauis, by which the eontents of eaeh stage iS shown. Thus darani
stepped up to a higher position and became one of the important
constituents of Mahayana Buddhism.
Dhci ani of Mahayana Buddhism is classified by the Madhyaznika
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school(in Nagarjunla's Mahaprajnaparamita-sastra), by thle Yogacara
(53)
school(in Maitreyana, s Yogaca-bhumi, and by Malltra-Yana (in
(54)
Amoghavajra's Tsung-shik t'o-lo-ui I-tsau)respeetively into four classes:
(i) Madhyamika's classification
1) "Keeping What is Heard" dtiaragi
2) "The Knowledge of Discrimination (vivelca)" or "Entering Through the Gates of Letters" dharani
3) "Entering Through Sound" dharani 4) Five Hundred Dharani Gate (ii) Yogacara's
1) Dliagna-(Adran i
2) Artha (Significance)-dharaii
3) "The Dhaianzi For the Attainment of Forbearance of Bodhisattva"
4) Mantra dharani (iii) Mantrayana's
1) Varna-dhara (dharani)
(51) Taisho, vol. 11, p. 650a.
(52) Taisho., vol. 25, p. 268, pp. 408b-409b, p. 657a.
(53) Taisho., vol. 30, p. 543a Cf. U. Wogihala, Asga's Bodhsatabhmi,
Leipzig, 1908, pp. 272-273. Mochizuki, Dictionary, vol. 4, pp. 3533-3534 Dasgupta S, op. cit., pp. 21-22; Toganoo, Mandara no Kenkyu, pp. 448-449; Matsunaga, op. cit., pp. 35, 36.
(54)Mochizuki, op. cit., p. 3534; Tlogalloo, Ｍaudara uo Keuhyu, pp. 435, 462.
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These classifibations made by three great masters distinctly show historical process of d hdrani in Mahayan.a Buddhism. The following is a study of this process focusing on Ndgarjuna's classification.
To explain the first class of dhdrani, Nagarjuna refers to the story
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of Cuda-panthaka. The story, according to the Chinese version, runs as f ollows
Because of his stupidity, Cuda-panthaka could not memorize even one phrase of Buddha's teaching. The Buddha, handing him a broom, ordered him to sweep a room, and let him recite the words of sao (to sweep) and chow (a broom). It was not easy to memorize the words, but, day by day he became acquainted with the words, and after several days, he memorized the words, then after several days, lie noticed these words were related ch'u (to remove) of kou (dirt). He recited everyday,
"What is ch'u? What is kou ?" Finally, he recognized ch'u as Wisdom and kou as sarhsdxa (transmigration) and ch'u of kou is Enlightenment.
Words of the type used above are designated as the "Keeping What is Heard" dharan2 by Nagdrjuna.
In the Yogacara school, this class of dhdraiii is called Dharrna-dharani. Through the hearing of d hartnas (teachings), whether they are written or not, man attains memory (srnrti), perfect knowledge (prajna) and power (bala). This class of dharanii is Dharina-dharani. In Mantra-Yana, this kind of dharaiiI is called "Holding Letters" (Zvar)ia-dhara)-dharannt. "Letters" (varna) refers to all (real and unreal) sutras. We notice that the term dharina shifts to a more concrete term, Letters. To keep Letters is to keep what is heard; therefore, if one achieves this dharani of Letters, he never forgets what he has heard, even
innumerable sutras.
The second class of dharani by Nagarjuna is "Knowledge of Discrimination," and "Entering Through the Gates of Letters" dhdranis. The former is explained thus
If man attains this dharani, he can apprehend true discrimination of reality. Elephants, horses, gold, woods, stone, clothing, man, woman, and water, they are different things and have different names. Even if the name is the same, the differentiations such as between rich and poor, beauty and ugliness, etc., exist. If man achieves this dh.drani, he can have the perfect "Knowledge of Discrimination" (viveka). The latter is the "Gates of Forty-two Letters," such as a, ra, pa, ca, na, etc. 1 represents adi, primacy, and anutpada, no birth. Bodhisattva who practice this gate of dhdrani, hearing the sound of A, immediately realize "All dharmas are primarily no birth." Ra, pa, ca, etc. can be interpreted in a similar manner. Nagarjuna calls this type of didrari "Entering Through the Gates of Letters."
According to Yogacara and Mantra-Ydna, this sort of dharani is called Artha-dharani. Artha is the true significance which is behind phenomenal appearances; therefore, the above two kinds of dharani which Nagarjuna called "Knowledge of Discrimination" and "Entering Through the Gates of Letters" are applied here. In the Yogacara school,
... Artha-dharani is that type of Mantras through the mystic power of which the correct significance. (artha) of the Dharma (which significance is never explained in any
sastra or by a(ny preacher)is revealed to the follower inan
(56) lntultlve way.
In Mantra-Yana, Amoghavajra says that if man achieves this
artha-dhara, he realizes in a single letter the practices of innumerable sutra and can explain them freely.
The third class of dhdrani, "Entering Through Sound," is explained (56) Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 21.
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thus: When a Bodhisattva hears a sound, he, discriminating between its root and twigs, contemplating its real appearances, realizes that sound represents a brief cycle of birth and death. On the contrary, ordinary man, even though the sound has disappeared, remembers it, because of its association to himself. For instance, he becomes angry because someone abused him, or he rejoices at praise he is given. A Bodhisattva does not get angry even if he is abused a million times, because he knows those sounds are but repetition of birth and death. Sound itself is sunyata; therefore, the phenomenon of sound is but the manifestation of nothingness (sunyatd). This is called "Entering Through sound" dhdrani.
In the Yogacara school, this sort of dhdrani is called the "Dhdrani For the Attainment of Forbearance of Bodhisattva (Bodhisattva-ksdnti tabhaya ca dhdrani)," It is the dhdrani through which real significance of reality (svabadva-artha) is revealed to the reciter and through which he attains the merit of forbearance. The dhdrani of "iti mniti kiti bhiksdfizti paddni svdhd, is this dhdrani. These syllables
... have got no meaning whatsoever, and the followers through concentration should realize the truth that these Mantras can have no meaning at all, -this unmeaningness is their real meaning. Through this absolute negative of all possible meanings to the Mantra, the real meaning of the Mantra as pure void is intuitively revealed to a man. Thus this realization of the meaning of the Mantras (as pure negation) helps the man to realize in pure intuition the nature of the Dharmas as essenceless. But through this negation of all meanings to the Mantras a unique transcendental immutable meaning is revealed to the heart of the Sadhaka; this immutable nature is the
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realnature of all things.
In short, through this sort of dhdrani, the reciter apprehends the true significance of reality (svabhava-artha) through which, far beyond
verbal expression, he attains the forbearance (ksdti) of Bodhisattva. This sort of dh.drani is classified as the last stage (the fourth class) in Yogacdra school.
To Mantra-yana, this sort of dhai aiu is named "Dharma-dhara" dharanni. Through this dhara (support), man, destroying all dharnas caused by transmigration, realizes the doctrine flowing out of the Pure Dhar ma-kaya.
Ndgdrjuna's fourth class of dharana is "Five Hundred dharani Gates." In Buddhism, by the time of Nagarjuiia, abundant dharartis such as Avataihsa (Garland)-dhdian.i, Akasagarbha (Empty womb)-dhdralti,
Sdgarakosa (Ocean store) -dhdranni, etc. had existed. NagdrjunaI names them altogetheras "Five Hundred Dharaw Gates." He says in the volume five of his book that roughly speaking there are five hundred dlidrai
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gates, strictly speaking, they are innumerable. Why were and why are these innumerable dhararais produced? In the volume twenty-eight of his book, he explains thusly: Bodhisattva attain various samadhii such as apratikata-wide (tunhindered wisdom), through the power of the above three types of dhdrarn, and at sam dhi Bodhisattva acquire asahikhya (innumerable) dhdrayiis. putting these numberless dharaeis together gives it the name "Five Hundred Dhgrani Gate." This is the store of the
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Bodhisattva's Merit.
This fourth class of dhdrannis is called "Mantra-dharani" in the Yogacara school. According to the Chinese version of Yogacdra-bhunn,
every Bodhisattva attains such unrestricted power (isvara) of same dhi, and thus is able to lend additional force (adhisthdnna) so all mantras which would remove the sufferings of sentient beings, and enable all mavlras
(60)
to alleviate many sufferings rather than a single type of suffering.
(58) Taisho., vol. 25, p. 269b. (59) Taisho., vol. 25, p. 268a. (60) Taisho., vol. 30, P. 543a.
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This "Mantra-dharani" is normally classified as the third type preceding the ksanti dharani, therefore, the phrase, "such (evam) unrestricted power (isvara) of samddhi," in the above translation of the Chinese refers to the unrestricted power of samddhi attained through the previous two types of dharani, that is, Dharma and Artha-dhdrani. Mantras which were able to remove the sufferings of sentient beings had already existed. Dhdrani (the possessor of power) makes them more effective. This is Mantra-dhdrani.
The fourth class of dhdrani classified by Amoghavajra is called Samddhi-dhara-dharani, because by the supporting (dhara) power, the mind does not wander, By this samddhi-dhara, concentration (samddhi) is not disturbed by impairments (klesa and upakl esa); therefore, Bodhisattva, attaining the five supernatural powers (paincdbhijna), can benefit all sen-tient beings.
We have no intention to discuss in detail the philosophies of the three schools. However, it is necessary to outline their basic attitude toward dhdrani.
The four classifications of dhdranis in the Madhyamika school are the conceptional explanations of dhdranis. Dhdrani is the doctrine of "supporting," and abundant dhdranis are necessarily products of its doctrine.
The Four kinds of dhdranis in. the Yogacara school are based on the psycho-yogic approach. The Commentary of Ybhumi by K'uei-chi, the founder of Fa-hsing school, interprets these four classes of dhdran i through ti (psycho-yogic subject) and thing (psycho-yogic
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objeet). This can be clarified by the following ilhlstration: 1st class
Psycho-yogic object...dharma Dharma-dharani...supporting
Psycho-yogic subject...smrti and prajna 2nd class
Psycho-yogic object...artha Artha-dhdrani...supporting
Psycho-yogic subject...smrti and prajna 3rd class
Psycho-yogic object...tathata (such-ness)
The dhdrani for the
attainment of ksdnti...supporting
of Bodhisattva
Psycho-yogie subject...nirvikalpa (unconditioned mind)
4th class
Psycho-yogic object...mantra Mantra-dhdrani...supporting Psycho-yogie subject...samddhi
Yogacara's classification is established upon a theoretical base, contrarily, that of Mantra-ydna is the practical classification of concrete and actual dhdrani, because at the time of Amoghavajra (705-774 A. D.) dhdrani was not the the theory or doctrine of "supporting," but an actual spell which was in use.
As to the historical process of actual dharanis, the fourth types classified by the three great masters are most significant. By the time of Nagarjuna, numerous dhdranis had existed. In the period of the Yogacara school, mantra was endowed with the function of dhdrani and was called mantra-dhdrani, then by Amoghavajra's time, the actual differentation between mantra and dhdrani had disappeared, and it was called samddhi-dhdrani.
5. Paritta, dhdrani, vidna, and mantra
Parittd (Skt) paritra) was a comfort and an attraction to the ancient people. It was a protection and a defense by which man could escape a calamity. Thus it can be thought of as a negative power. Dhdrani, on the
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other hand, appeared as a possessor of a positive power which brings
happiness to man. Consequently, in the history of Buddhism, the term
paritt, being overpowered by the term dhdrani, disappeared completely
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by the time of Mantra-yana.
The terms mantra and vidyd, however, have not disappeared. The
term mantra is described as
... "an instrument for evoking or producing something in our
mind, "specif icaliy"a holy formula or magic spell for evoking
or bringing to mind the vision and inner presence of a god,"
Therefore, its function is in the mind's (manasah) protection (trdiza)
(64)
against the bondage of samsdra(transmigration). The term vidyd has
survived because, on the one hand, the spell is a skillful art, and an
effective practice, and on the other hand, it is a possessor of wisdom
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(vidya-dharczni).
The term vidya is used as an epithet for spell, and when it is used as vidyd-dhara it is a functional name of spell. By the time of Mantra-ydna, vidya had been deified as Vidya-raja (King of vidya) and Vidya-raja or Vidya-rajni(Queen of vidya). The guardian-gods of Buddha called Myo-o
(66)
in the pantheon of Shingon Buddhism are these kinds of deities. There is a saying of Amoghavaja: "There is a spell consisting of one letter, two letters, three letters, or of ten thousand letters. And also there are innnumerable spells. They are named as mantra, dhdrani,
(62) Cf. Yamada, op. cit., p. 150.
(63) Heinrich Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civiliation (Harper
Torchbook, 1962), ed. Joseph Campbell, pp. 140-141.
(64) Cf. Bharati Agehananda. Thez Tantric Tradition (London: Rider and Co.,
1965), P. 105; also cf. Woodroff, S. The Garland of Letters, 2nd ed. Madras, 1951,
p. 258.
(65) Cf. Matsunaga, op, cit., pp. 23-24
(66) Cf. Ryuken Sawa, Butsuzo Zuten, or The Illustrated Book of Buddhist Images
(67)
and vidya." The terms mantra, dharani, and vidya are used to indicate that the spell or spells have different aspects. It will be clearer in their Tibetan translations. The Tibetan versions of mantra, dharani, and vidya are respectively gsan-sfrags (secret spell). gzvns-shags (holding spell),
(68)
and Rig-shags(knowledge spell).
Among these three terms forr spell, the term mantra is connected with the authority of Veda and it is Hinduistic (Pan-Indian); the term dhdrani is Buddhistic; and the term vidya is both Hinduistic and Buddhistic. Although the term dhdrani is the particular Buddhist terminology for spell, it did- not replace the term mantra. The term mantra endured in Buddhism, and in the Mahdvairocana-sutra (the Great Sun Sutra) it appeared as Mantra.
6. Mantra and mantras
The Mahdvairocana-sutra, classified in the group of Carya-tantra, is the sutra, of dialogues between Vairocana, (Illuminating) Buddha and the Lord of Secrets (Va jradhara, Va jrapd ni, or Va jrasattva). In the sutra, Vairocana Buddha, answering the questions of the Lord of secrets, explains the theoretical basis of the Perfect Wisdom (sarvajndna) and the practical
(69)
and concrete methods f_or its attainment.
Vairocana Buddha explains Mantra thus: Mantra of various mantras is not produced by all enlightened one, it's not that which has been produced by anyone, and it is not that which are rejoiced by all enlightened ones. Because Mantra is Dharmata of various dharmas. Whether various tathagatas appear or not, Dharmata of various dharmas exists. Thus, Mantra is Mantra-dharmatc of various mantras.
Vairocana Buddha further says: The entire knower and viewer of the complete perfect enlightenment (samyak-sannbodhi), appearing in the
(67) Cf. Toganoo, Maudara uo Keuhy, p. 435. (68) sakaki, op. cit., nos. 4237, 4238,, 4239.
(69) Taisho., vol. 18, no. 848 Cf. Matsuluga, op. cit., pp. 55, 60.
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world, explains the Dharmata in various ways, and by various actions of giving (ddna), and in comformity to various pleasing desires of all the living, blessing (adhisthana) the Dharmata in various words, letters, dialects and sounds, preaches the way of Mantra. What is the way of
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Mantra? It is to bless (adhisthdna) the written letters.
Mantratd (Mantra itself, Mantra-ness) is Dharm-ata (Dh.arma itself, Dharma-ness). "Mantra itself is Devata, that is, the supreme Consciousness
(71)
(citsakti) manifesting in that form."
... Every Mantra, be it Vaidik or Tantrik, is an appearance Crupa) of Brahman. Veda or Tantra, consisting of Mantras, is only a manifestation of Brahman. Therefore, it cannot be saidt hat Mantra has been created by Brahman. Rather is it that the Para-brahman appear as Mantra. For, although Brahman is the Creator of the world, He is not the Creatorr of Himself. Creation of Brahman is impossible, for He is
(72)
without beginning and ever-existent....
Although this is a Hindu-tantric interpretation of Mantra, there
exist some affinities with the Buddho-tantric interpretation. It is
impossible for us to neglect the influence of the tantric (Pan-Indian) (73)
movement onto hudahiszn around the seventh century A. D. Shashibhusan
Dasgupta says,
... Tantrism is neither Buddhist nor Hindu in origin : it seems to be
a religious under-current, originally independent of any abstruse
metaphyshcal speculation, flowing on from an obscure point of
(74)
time in the religious history of India....
The term adhisthana derived from adhi (beside, over) stha (to stand) literally means that which stands beside or over. It is a "position,"
(70) Taisho., vo1. 18, p. 10a. (71) Woodroff, op. oi., p. 263.
(72) Wood off, Priuciples of Taura (London: Luzac & Co., 1916), Part II, p. 24 (73) C Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 20-21.
specifically an "authoritative position" which stands over, and the power' associated with such a position. In this sense it comes near the grace' or blessing' of Christianity. Sambhoga-kdya (the Body of Bliss) is sometimes called Adhisthdna-kayd. In the- Tibetan translation, it is
(75)
Byin-(gyis)-brLabs-pa (the wave of power). In Chinese it is translated chia-ch'ih. (chia=to add, to increase; ch'ih=to hold, support) meaning "to add a power and hold it." Therefore, the term adhisthana used in this sutra, can be defined as enpowerment by the blessing of the enlightened one.
Mantras (spells) as such are nothing but words and letters. Through adhisthana of Buddha, they become the symbol through which Mantra is pursued. In other words, when Mantratd is identified with Dharmata, mantra function as a symbol. One who approaches Mantra through -the gate of this mantra is called a "Bodhitattva who practices the discipline of the Bodhisattva through the gate of mantra." This name had never been used in the group of Kriyd-tantra which is considered
(76)
to have been compiled before the Vahavairocana-sutra.
In the sutra, the Lord of Secrets asks of Vairocana Buddha the cause, root, and the ultilmate of "perfect wisdom (sarvajhana)." The Buddha answers, "Bodhicitta is the cause (hetu), Illahakaruna is the root
(77)
(mula) and upaya is its ultimate (paryavasana)." Both Bodhicitta (Mind of Enlightenment) and Mahdkarund (Great Compassion) are the most important symbols of Buddhism in general however, the purase, "upaya is its ultimate" reflects a singuar trait of Mantra -yana.
The term updya derived from upa-i (to approach) signifies an approach' and a means' used as an approach. In Kautilya's Arthasdstra,
(75) Cf. Snellgrove, D. L. The Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study (London:
Oxford University Peress, reprinted 1964), Part I, P. 133.
(76) Cf. Shinten Sakai, Dainichi-Kyo no Seiritsu ni kansuru Kenkyu, or An
Essay on the Completion of Mahdvairocana-sutra, (Koyasan: Henjyokoin, 1962), p. 151
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upaya is a political approach and at the same it is a political means, that
(78)
is, a policy. Upaya, in the religious sense, is, on the one hahd, an approach to Buddha and a means used for the approach by man, and on the other hand, it is an approach to man by Buddha and a means used for that. In the case of Mantra and mantras, mantras are a means to approach
Mantra and a means of approach by man through the blessing (adhistana)
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of Buddha. This approach and a means were regarded as ultimate in
Mantra-ydna. Both adhisthdna and upaya are the basic constituent
elements of the symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism, which will be fully
discussed in Part II.
(78) Cf. Heinrich Zimmer, Philosophiee of India (New York: Meridian Book, Inc.,
3rd printing, 1958), p. 120 ff.
