Author(s)
村上, 公久Citation
聖学院大学論叢, 5(3): 49-67URL
http://serve.seigakuin-univ.ac.jp/reps/modules/xoonips/detail.php?item_i d=718Rights
聖学院学術情報発信システム : SERVE
SEigakuin Repository for academic archiVE
一
‑MajorCause of Deforestation‑‑
Kimihisa MURAKAMI
アジア・太平洋地域における移動焼畑農耕 一一森林消失の主原因
村 上 公 久
熱 帯 林 消 失 の 原 因 は 1 . 移 動 焼 畑 農 耕
2 .
過放牧3 .
薪炭材採取であるO 最大の原因であ る移動焼畑農耕については「畑」という漢字が火肩(ひへん)から成っていることから解るまうに,農業の始源は焼畑農耕であり,現在もコスト・ベニフィット比では最大の最も効率の良い土地利用 形態であるD
開発途上国で、は人口圧が移動焼畑農耕を急増,拡大させ,土地保全を考慮した土地生産力の回復 をはかりつつ焼畑を移動させてゆく伝統的な移動焼畑農耕を圧倒して 新興の無秩序で土地保全を 無視した新しいタイプの移動焼畑農耕が卓越しているO この新しいタイプの焼畑が森林消失の直接 の原因なのであるO
本報告ではアジア・太平洋地域における移動焼畑農耕の実態を考察し,森林資源保全の方途を検 討するO
FOREWORD
I n A s i a ‑ P a c i f i c r e g i o n ( f i f t e e n c o u n t r i e s )
,d e f o r e s t a t i o n r a t e from 1976 t o 1980 was r e p o r t e d by Bostrom (
19 8 5 ) t o be two m i l l i o n ha a n n u a l l y . August 1990
,FAO o f UN r e p o r t e d t h e r a t e d u r i n g 1 9 8 1 t o 1990 a s 4 . 7 m i l l i o n ha a yea
r.P a s t t e n y e a r s t h e d e f o r e s t a t i o n speed o f o u r r e g i o n doubled t h a n t h a t o f t h e p r e v i o u s t i m e
I m p e l l e d by b o t h p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and s h o r t a g e o f f o o d
,p e o p l e ' s demand f o r l a n d u s e e x t e n d s r a p i d l y . This s t r e s s a c c e l e r a t e s d e f o r e s t a t i o n o r d e g r a d a t i o n o f f o r e s t i n A s i a ‑ P a c i f i c r e g i o n and c a u s e s e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems o f s o i l and w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n .
Key words; S h i f t i n g C u l t i v a t i o n
,D e f o r e s t a t i o n
,Swidden
,C o n s e r v a t i o n
,A s i a ‑ P a c i f i c Region
BACKGROUND
The i n c r e a s i n g r a t e o f d e f o r e s t a t i o n i n t h e A s i a ‑ P a c i f i c r e g i o n h a s been a mounting concern n o t o n 1 y t o t h e p e o p 1 e i n f o r e s t r y s e c t o r and governments i n t h e r e g i o n who can f o r e s e e a growing s h o r t a g e o f woods and s e r v i c e s t h a t have been t r a d i t i o n a l l y p r o v i d e d by t h e f o r e s
t.There i s a 1 s o a worldwide c o n c e r n t h a t a f u r t h e r d e p 1 e t i o n o f t h e f o r e s t c o v e r i n t h e t r o p i c s may a d v e r s e 1 y a f f e c t t h e environment f a r beyond t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e i f n o t on g l o b a 1 b a s i s .
R e p o r t s from t h e c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n i n d i c a t e t h a t one o f t h e major c a u s e s o f d e f o r e s t a t i o n i s s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s ( S c h o 1 z 1985
,Sumitro 1 9 8 5 ) . Two examp1es w i l l i l l u s t r a t e i
t.I n Papua New Guinea
,v a s t a r e a s o f f o r e s t s ( t o t h e t u n e o f 3 . 4 t o 4 . 0 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s ) have been c o n v e r t e d i n t o u n p r o d u c t i v e g r a s s 1 a n d o f 10w economic v a 1 u e due t o c o n t i n u o u s p r a c t i c e o f s h i f t i n g c u 1 t i v a t i o n . I n Sarawak ( M a 1 a y s i a ) p r o v i s i o n a 1 e s t i m a t e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a r e a o f mature f o r e s t b e i n g d e s t r o y e d a n n u a l l y i s o f t h e o r d e r o f 30
,000 h a . Based upon t h i s f i g u r e
,t h e n e t r e v e n u e 1 0 s s t o t h e economy o f t h e s t a t e from s h i f t i n g c u 1 t i v a t i o n wou1d amount t o some M$300 m i l l i o n p e r yea
r.This i n c l u d e s t h e v a l u e o f commercia1 t i m b e r d e s t r o y e d
,f u t u r e emp10yment o p p o r t u n i t i e s 1 0 s t and a d e d u c t i o n o f M$50 m i l l i o n which r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e v e n u e a t t r i b u t a b 1 e t o s h i f t i n g c u 1 t i v a t i o n ( H a t c h
,1 9 8 0 ) .
S h i f t i n g c u 1 t i v a t i o n i s
,however
,n o t a n i s o 1 a t e d phenomenon c a u s i n g d e f o r e s t a t i o n . I t r e p r e s e n t s t h e who1e way o f l i f e o f t h e communities depending upon i
t.There i s t h e r e f o r e a need t o s t u d y a l l a s p e c t s ‑ t e c h n i c a 1
,s o c i o
・c u 1 t u r a 1
,economic ‑ i n o r d e r t o f i n d a 1 t e r n a t i v e s which a r e c o m p a t i b 1 e w i t h t h e way o f l i f e and a c c e p t a b 1 e economy.
DEFINITION
S h i f t i n g c u 1 t i v a t i o n i s a n a n c i e n t and a w e l l known f a r m i n g system i n t h e t r o p i c s . The system
v a r i e s i n d e t a i 1 from p 1 a c e t o p 1 a c e . Consequently
,i t h a s been v a r i o u s 1 y d e f i n e d and a number
o f t e r m s have been used w i t h emphasis on d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f t h e p r o c e s s . For examp1e
,P e 1 z e r
(19 7 8 ) d e f i n e d i t a s an a g r i c u l t u r e system which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a r o t a t i o n o f f i e 1 d s r a t h e r
t h a n o f c r o p s
,by s h o r t p e r i o d o f c r o p p i n g ( o n e t o t h r e e s y e a r s ) a 1 t e r n a t i n g w i t h 1 0 n g f a l l o w
p e r i o d s ( u p t o t w e n t y o r more y e a r s b u t o f t e n a s s h o r t a s s i x t o e i g h t y e a r s ) and by c l e a r i n g by
means o f s l a s h and b u r n " . W a t e r s ( 1 9 7 1 ) f u r t h e r added t o t h e above d e f i n i t i o n
,t h e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e u s e o f human e n e r g y
,employing machetes
,d i g g i n g s t i c k s o r hoe w i t h t h e plough o n l y r a r e l y b e i n g u s e d " . Conklin ( 1 9 6 1 ) d e s c r i b e d s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n a s any a g r i c u l t u r e system i n which f i e l d s a r e c l e a r e d by f i r i n g and a r e cropped d i s c o n t i n u o u s l y . The F AO workshop a t t h e I b a d a n U n i v e r s i t y
(19 8 2 ) t r i e d t o g e n e r a l i z e t h e d e f i n i t i o n
,a c c o r d i n g t o which s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n i s " a system i n which r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d s o f c o n t i n u o u s c u l t i v a t i o n a r e f o l l o w e d by r e l a t i v e l y l o n g p e r i o d s o f f a l l o w " . The q u e s t i o n r a i s e d i n t h e workshop was a s t o how l o n g i s a r e l a t i v e l y l o n g p e r i o d o f f a l l o w " and a t what p o i n t " a f a l l o w becomes a s h o r t f a l l o w .
Nye and Greenland ( 1 9 6 0 ) and a m a j o r i t y o f t h e a u t h o r s used t h e t e r m s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n a s a g e n e r a l t e r m i n c l u d i n g many v a r i e t i e s o f n a t u r a l f a l l o w c u l t i v a t i o n s y s t e m s . Conklin ( 1 9 5 7 ) f a v o u r s t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m swidden f a r m i n g . Spencer ( 1 9 6 6 ) and t h e l a t e s t MAB/UNESCO ( 1 9 8 5 ) p u b l i c a t i o n on swidden c u l t i v a t i o n i n Asia l i s t numerous t e r m s r e l a t e d t o s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s and l a n g u a g e s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n South and S o u t h e a s t A s i a . I n Melanesia
,i t i s s i m p l y c a l l e d g a r d e n i n g " and t h e c r o p f i e l d s a r e c a l l e d g a r d e n s . Since
,t o t h e knowledge o f t h e a u t h o r
,a s i n g l e t e r m h a s n o t been recommended s o f a r
,t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r m s which a r e commonly used i n E n g l i s h s p e a k i n g world w i l l be u s e d i n t h e p r e s e n t work s y
p.onymously; s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n ' ¥ s h i f t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e ' ¥ s l a s h and b u r n a g r i c u l t u r e ' ¥ swidden f a r m i n g ( o r c u l t i v a t i o n ) ' ¥ t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r e
ぺs u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e " and g a r d e n i n g "
TYPOLOGY
I n view o f t h e v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e t e c h n i q u e
,i t i s n o t surpnsmg t o n o t e t h a t a number o f w o r k e r s have a t t e m p t e d t o c l a s s i f y s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y depending upon t h e e l e m e n t s which t h e y wish t o e m p h a s i z e . Some o f t h e i m p o r t a n t o n e s a r e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d b e l o w .
Conklin ( 1 9 5 7 ) d i f f e r e n t i a t e d swidden i n t o i n t e g r a l and p a r t i a l s y s t e m s on t h e b a s i s o f :
ー( i ) p r e d o m i n a n t l y economic i n t e r e s t
,( i i ) more t r a d i t i o n a l
,y e a r ‑ r o u n d
,community wide
,l a r g e l y s e l f c o n t a i n e d
,and r i t u a l l y s a n c t i o n e d way o f l i f e .
H i s s u b ‑ t y p e s were based on agronomic and c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s
,s u c h a s :
( i ) p r i n c i p a l c r o p s
(川
c r o pa s s o c i a t i o n ( i i i ) c r o p s / f a l l o w t i m e r a t i o
(川d i s p e r s a lo f s w i d d e n e r s ( v ) u s e o f l i v e s t o c k
( v i ) u s e o f p r i n c i p l e t o o l s and t e c h n i q u e s
やi i ) t r e a t m e n t o f s o i l
い
i i ) v e g e t a t i o n t y p e ( i x ) c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s ( x ) e d a p h i c f a c t o r s
B r o o k f i e l d and H a r t ( 1 9 7 1 ) c l a s s i f i e d t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r e i n Melanesia i n t o low and h i g h i n t e n s i t y s y s t e m s w i t h two s u b ‑ c l a s s e s w i t h i n e a c h . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was based on 48 a t t r i b u t e s
,such a s
,b a s i c s u b s i s t e n c e f o o d s
,p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y
,e n v i r o n m e n t a l a t t r i b u t e s ( l o c a t i o n
,e l e v a t i o n
,t e r r a i n
,r a i n f a l l
,s o i l b i o t a )
,t r a d i t i o n a l c r o p s ( 5 w i l d f o o d s o u r c e s and 5 c u l t i v a t e d c r o p s )
,1 4 d i f f e r e n t c u l t i v a t i o n methods
,t h r e e c u l t i v a t e d f r e q u e n c i e s and f i v e c r o p s e g r e g a t
lOn p a t t e r n s .
Ruthenberg ( 1 9 7 1 ) d i v i d e d s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f s i x a t t r i b u t e s :
(1)V e g e t a t i o n t y p e s
(2)
Migration
(3)R o t a t i o n
(4)
Method o f c l e a r a n c e
(5)Types o f c r o p s
(6)Types o f t o o l s
Waters
(19 7 1 ) d i f f e r e n t i a t e d two main c a t e g o r i e s
,v i z . ;
(1)t r a d i t i o n a l s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n
,and
(2)t h a t imposed by n e c e s s i t y which a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o r r e s p o n d t o
(1)normal and
(2)a c c e l e r a t e d s y s t e m s i n FAO
(19 7 4 ) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . G r e e n l a n d ' s (
19 7 4 ) main b a s i s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was l a n d c u l t i v a t i o n :
Phase 1 S i m p l e s h i f t i n g c u l t i v α t i o n : d w e l l i n g s and c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s s h i f t t o g e t h e
r.Phase
I IR e c u r r e n t c u l t i v a t i o n : c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s s h i f t more f r e q u e n t l y t h a n d w e l l i n g s
,may b e complex
,s e v e r a l f i e l d t y p e s .
Phase I I I R e c u r r e n t c u l t i v a t i o n w i t h c o n t i n u o u s l y c u l t i v a t e d ρ l o t s : always complex
,s e v e r a l f i e l d
t y p e s
Phase町 C o n t i n u o u sc u l t i v a t i o n : may i n v o l v e a l t e r n a t e husbandry w i t h p l a n t e d and c u l t i v a t e d p a s t u r e s o f f a l l o w c r o p s
Phase
IIand
IIIcan b e s u b ‑ d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n t e n s i t y o f l a n d ‑ u s e
,on t h e b a s i s o f A l l e n ' s ( A l l e n 1 9 6 5 ) l a n d u s e f a c t o r
,which i s e x p r e s s e d a s L
二ーヱァ‑C+F
where L = l a n d u s e f a c t o r
t α
0 ・
n d e o
p.n e
o b
P A
n ‑mAW
P &
︒
on μ
vi
︑
1c t
r?irTA
O O L U ' h + L + L σbσb
n n
凸 し 凸 し 唱aEEム
咋
aB'A
一 一一 一 C F
The F AO/SIDA ( 1 9 7 4 ) symposium d i f f e r e n t i a t e d swidden f a r m i n g i n t o
(1)c o n t i n u o u s and
(2)n o n ‑ c o n t i n u o u s c u l t i v a t i o n
,t h e f i r s t r e f e r r i n g t o where some form o f c o n t i n u o u s management i s p r a c t i s e d . The n o n ‑ c o n t i n u o u s were s u b ‑ d i v i d e d i n t o n a t u r a l f a l l o w
,and i f t h e homes o f t h e c u l t i v a t o r s a r e a l s o moved
,i n t o s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n .
Anthony (
19 7 5 ) d i v i d e d s w i d d e n e r s i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s mainly on t h e b a s i s o f h i s t o r i c a l backgrounds o f t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s :
( 1 ) P i o n e e r s :
・I n N o r t h Thailand
,some s w i d d e n e r s c u l t i v a t e opium poppy a s a c a s h c r o p i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e h i l l p a d d y . They a r e r e l a t i v e l y mobile
,and a t l e a s t under i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s
,c l e a r s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n s o f c l i m a x f o r e s t each y e a r
,hence t h e d e s i g n a t i o n
p
lOn e e r
(2)
E s t a b l i s h e d s
切i d c
をn e r :
These p e o p l e c l e a r r a l a t i v e l y l i t t l e o r no climax v e g e t a t i o n . They l i v e a t l o w e r e l e v a t i o n p r e f e r r i n g t o f a r m t h e g e n t l e s l o p e s and p l a t e a u l a n d . U n l i k e t h e p i o n e e r s
,t h e s e e s t a b l i s h e d s w i d d e n e r s g e n e r a l l y f a r m f o r l o n g p e r i o d s w i t h i n one d e f i n i t e t e r r i t o r y . ( 3 ) l n c i p i e n t s ωi d d e n e r s :
Those who have t a k e n t h i s form o f a g r i c u l t u r e more r e c e n t l y
K u n s t a d t e r (
19 7 8 ) mainly based t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c u l t i v a t i o n and f a l l o w p e r i o d and d i f f e r e n t i a t e d swidden f a r m i n g i n t o f o u r main c l a s s e s :
(i)
S h o r t c u l t i v a t i o n w i t h s h o r t f a l l o w .
(川
S h o r tc u l t i v a t i o n w i t h l o n g f a l l o w o r f o r e s t f a l l o w .
( i i i ) Long c u l t i v a t i o n w i t h very l o n g f a l l o w o r abandonment o f t h e s i t e
(川
Permanentf i e l d t r e e c r o p s w i t h u s e o f f o r e s t f o r swidden r i c e and f u e
. 1Macewan ( 1 9 7 8 ) c l a s s i f i e d t h e s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e system a s p r a c t i c e d i n Papua New Guinea i n t o s i x main t y p e s ( T a b l e
1).T a b l e 1 . S u b s i s t e n c e A g r i c u l t u r e Systems i n PNG (Macewan , 1 9 7 8 ) System Length o f f a l l o w R V a l u e Comments
( y e a r s )
F o r e s t f a l l o w 2 0 5 Woody v e g e t a t i o n
,low i n t e n s i t y Bush f a l l o w 1 0 ‑ 2 0 5 ‑ 1 0 Softwood
,w e t t e r l o w l a n d s
,low i n t e n s i t y
G r a s s f a l l o w 5 ‑ 2 0 1 0 ‑ 2 0 G r a s s e s
,d r y l o w l a n d s a n d h i g h l a n d s
,m o d e r a t e i n t e n s i t y S h o r t f a l l o w / p e r m a n e n t 5 20‑90 I n t e n s i v e c u l t i v a t i o n
,c u l t i v a t i o n h i g h l a n d v a l l e y s .
Sago h a r v e s t i n g V a r i a b l e V a r i a b l e Swampy l o w l a n d s
,low i n t e n s i t y
,s i l v i c u l t u r e p r a c t i s e d .
P e r e n n i a l c r o p p i n g O 90‑100 P e r e n n i a l banana
,m o d e r a t e l l l t e n s l t y .
The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by Macewan i s based on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c r o p c u l t i v a t i o n and f a l l o w i n g w i t h i n t h e t o t a l l e n g t h o f one c y c l e o f l a n d u t i l i z a t i o n . The symbol R" r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n t e n s i t y o f c r o p p i n g and i s d e f i n e d a s t h e number o f y e a r s o f c u l t i v a t i o n m u l t i p l i e d by 100 and d i v i d e d by t h e l e n g t h o f c y c l e o f l a n d u t i l i z a t i o n . With reduced f a l l o w p e r i o d
,t h e c r o p p i n g i n t e n s i t y o r R" v a l u e i n c r e a s e s . For example
,one y e a r c r o p p i n g w i t h 1 9 y e a r f a l l o w w i l l g i v e a
1 X 100
R" v a l u e o f
‑=一一一一=19+ 1
',‑5
'. whereas oermanent c
YVu'‑"...u.u Pu l t i v a t i o n would r e s u l t i t R" v a l u e o f 100 o r more (Ruthenberg
,1 9 7 5 ) . According t o him
,t h e v a l u e o f R" s h o u l d be below 33 f o r an a r e a t o b e c l a s s i f i e d a s s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n .
Mahapatra ( 1 9 7 9 ) c l a s s i f i e d s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t o r s on t h e b a s i s o f dependence on s w i d d e n :
(1)Exclusive dependence:
( 2 ) Major d e p e n d e n c e : ( 3 ) Contingent d e p e n d e n c e : ( 4 ) Marginal d e p e n d e n c e :
Each o f t h e s e major t y p e s i s f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o ( i ) community‑wise
,and ( i i ) i n d i v i d u a l ‑ w i s e .
G r a n d s t a f f ( 1 9 8 0 ) d i v i d e d t h e s w i d d e n e r s i n t o p a r t i a l o r i n t e g r a t e d s w i d d e n e r s . According t o him
,h i l l t r i b e s o f n o r t h e r n Thailand belong t o i n t e g r a l s w i d d e n e r s b e c a u s e : ( i ) t h e y have l o n g h i s t o r y o f s w i d d e n i n g ; ( i i ) f o r t h e m a j o r i t y
,swiddening i s t h e main o c c u p a t i o n and p r e ‑ o c c u p a t i o n ;
(刈i nmost v i l l a g e s
,even t h o s e who own t e r r a c e s s t i l l swidden r e g u l a r l y ; and ( i v ) t h e a t t a c h m e n t t o and i m p o r t a n c e o f swiddening i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i r b e l i e f s
,v a l u e s
,s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
,e d u c a t i o n a l system
,e t c . However
,by h i s own a c c o u n t s
,t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n d i d n o t f i t p r o p e r l y even i n n o r t h e r n T h a i l a n d .
ENVIRONMENT AL IMP ACTS
1 t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t most o f t h e s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t o r s a r e unaware o f any damage t o t h e environment due t o swidden f a r m i n g . 1 n t h e a b s e n c e o f any o t h e r v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e i n t h e i r e c o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g t h e y r e g a r d swiddening a s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e mode o f f o o d p r o d u c t i o n
,though i n t h e p r o c e s s t h e y d e s t r o y t h e v a l u a b l e t i m b e r s p e c i e s and t h e i r r e g e n e r a t i o n
,c a u s e s o i l e r o s i o n and d e p l e t i o n o f s o i l f e r t i l i t y . However
,t h e y do n o t p e r c e i v e t h i s a s d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r e s o u r c e s o r d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e environmen
t.According t o one e s t i m a t e
,i n humid t r o p i c s
,a p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y o f 22‑50 persons/km
2can b e s u p p o r t e d by swidden f a r m i n g w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e n v i r o n m e n t a l a f f e c t s . Wherever t h e e q u i l i b r i u m between s w i d d e n e r s and t h e environment i s d i s t u r b e d
,however
,mainly due t o p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e
,t h e u s u a l r e s p o n s e i s t o s h o r t e n t h e f a l l o w and t o i n c r e a s e t h e f r e q u e n c y and p e r i o d o f c u l t i v a t i o n . The b a l a n c e d a l t e r n a t i o n o f c r o p s and f a l l o w p e r i o d i s t h u s d i s t u r b e d .
The main e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s a r e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w . Ch α n g e s i n v e g e t a t i o n s t r u c t u r e
The f i r s t and t h e most prominent change on t h e s i t e when t h e new p i e c e o f l a n d i s c o n v e r t e d
i n t o a f i e l d i s t h e removal o f e x i s t i n g ( p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y ) v e g e t a t i o n which i n most c a s e s i s
o n l y p a r t i a
l.According t o Donis (
19 7 5 ) and Denevan ( 1 9 7 5 ) s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n f a v o u r s l i g h t
demanding s p e c i e s
,among them s e v e r a l s p e c i e s o f economic i m p o r t a n c e
,i t makes t h e s t r u c t u r e
o f s t a n d l e s s complex
,b u t many f o r e s t s a r e changed a d v e r s e l y and t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o degraded
s e c o n d a r y s c r u b w i t h o u t any p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l and t u r n s v a s t a r e a i n t o s a v a n n a s where
a n n u a l b u r n i n g c a u s e s i n t e n s e erosion'¥When t h e f a l l o w p e r i o d i s s h o r t e n e d
,a s t a g e i s r e a c h e d
when woody p l a n t s a r e n o t a b l e t o g e t a f o o t ‑ h o l d t o form a c l o s e canopy and t h e g r a s s e s
become e s t a b l i s h e d . Repeated b u r n i n g f u r t h e r i n h i b i t s t h e growth o f woody p l a n t s . The n u c l e u s o f a d e f o r e s t e d a r e a i s formed which e x t e n d s w i t h t i m e .
F l o r i s t i c s t u d i e s i n p r i m a r y and secondary f o r e s t s and g a r d e n s i n P apua N ew Guinea i n d i c a t e t h a t f o l l o w i n g garden abandonment
,r e g e n e r a t i o n t o a f l o r i s t i c a l l y mixed secondary f o r e s t was r a p i d due t o f a v o u r a b l e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . However
,w i t h i n t e n s i v e u s e and s h o r t f a l l o w t h e r e was a s u c c e s s i o n t o a f o r e s t dominated by M i s c a n t h u s s p . and 1 m p e r a t a c y l i n d r i c a . Burning o f t h e s e degraded f o r e s t s r e s u l t e d i n t h e r a p i d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f 1 m )
りe r a t a g r a s s l a n d s (Manner
,1 9 7 6 ) A rough e s t i m a t e i n PNG i s t h a t a b o u t 3 . 5 t o 4 m i l l i o n ha o f f o r e s t have been c o n v e r t e d i n t o a n t h r o p o g e n i c g r a s s l a n d s i n t h e wake o f bush f a l l o w g a r d e n i n g ( S r i v a s t a v a
,1 9 8 5 ) . The a r e a s o f a l a n g ‑ a l a n g
(Im p e r a t a ) dominated l a n d s i n l n d o n e s i a a r e e s t i m a t e d a t 1 6 m i l l i o n ha w i t h an a n n u a l i n c r e a s e o f 1 5 0
,000 ha ( S o e r j a n i
,1 9 7 0 ) . Some f i g u r e s f o r d e s t r u c t i o n o f f o r e s t s have been g i v e n i n t h e e a r l i e r s e c t i o n . R e t r o g r e s s i o n o f f o r e s t t o g r a s s l a n d r e s u l t s i n d e c r e a s e i n t h e l i v e biomass
,a s i n d i c a t e d below (Manner
,1 9 7 6 )
M e t r i c t o n s / h α Primary f o r e s t s 2 6 1 5 y e a r o l d s e c . f o r e s t 2 2 1 2 y e a r o l d s e c . f o r e s t 8 2 . 5 Year 1 ‑Garden 7 . 5 Year 2 ‑Garden 7 . 6 Year 3 ‑Garden 1 5 . 3 G r a s s l a n d s 5 . 4
1 n c r e a s e i n s o i l e r o s i o n
Over v a s t a r e a s
,s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t on h i l l s l o p e s . There i s c o n s i d e r a b l e
c o n t r o v e r s y c o n c e r n i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n on s o i l e r o s i o n . While one s c h o o l o f
t h o u g h t m a i n t a i n s t h a t s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n r e s u l t s i n t h e c o n t i n u o u s ( b u t p o s s i b l y s l o w )
d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s o i l t h r o u g h a c c e l e r a t e d e r o s i o n
,t h e o t h e r c l a i m s t h a t s h i f t i n g h a b i t i t s e l f i s
a n agronomic r e s p o n s e d e s i g n e d t o mlmmlze s o i l e r o s i o n ( L a l
,1 9 7 3 ) . S o i l e r o s i o n t r i a l s i n
Sarawak on s t e e p l a n d ( 5 0 degrees s l o p e ) have shown t h a t under t r a d i t i o n a l l y p r a c t i s e d s h i f t i n g
c u l t i v a t i o n ( i . e . w i t h l o n g b u s h / f a l l o w p e r i o d s )
,s o i l e r o s i o n i s o f l i t t l e i m p o r t a n c e e i t h e r i n
r e s p e c t o f c o n t i n u o u s s o
i1d e g r a d a t i o n o r t o s h i f t t h e f i e l d s . These two c l o s e l y l i n k e d f a c t o r s a r e
more c o r r e l a t e d t o low l e v e l s o f n u t r i e n t s and t h e problem o f weed c o m p e t i t i o n . However
,i n
l o n g s e t t l e d and more d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s
,t h e problem o f s o i l e r o s i o n under s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n h a s become q u i t e s e r i o u s . Both g u l l y and s h e e t e r o s i o n have been observed i n h i l l paddy a r e a s where t h e f a l l o w p e r i o d i s s h o r t o r t o t a l l y abandoned. On some v e r y s t e e p l y d i s s e c t e d a r e a s r e g u l a r l y used f o r h i l l paddy s e r i o u s l a n d s l i p s and slumping have o c c u r r e d ( H a t c h
,1 9 8 1 ) . I n Bangladesh
,i t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t 84 m i l l i o n t o n s o f s o i l i s l o s t a n n u a l l y r e s u l t i n g i n s e r i o u s d e c l i n e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t i v i t y o f l a n d . The same i s t r u e i n t h e h i g h l a n d s o f PNG w i t h h i g h p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s ( B l e e k e r 1 9 8 3 ) .
The u n f a v o u r a b l e i m p a c t s o f swidden c u l t i v a t i o n have l o n g been f e l t by lowland f a r m e r s i n West Kalimantan ( G i n t i n g s and W i r i a d i n a t a
,1 9 7 3 ) . Swidden on s t e e p s l o p e s i n mountain r e g i o n s r e s u l t i n t h e accumulation o f a c i d s i l t and sand which made lowland r i c e f i e l d s i n f e r t i l e . I n t h e 1930s
,Chinese f a r m e r s i n t h e v i l l a g e s o f Lohabang and P a s a i r e a c t e d s t r o n g l y t o s w i d d e n e r s i n t h e m o u n t a i n s . I n c e n t r a l Kalimantan
,S a t j a p r a d j a ( 1 9 7 2 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t swidden c u l t i v a t i o n ( a n d even worse l o g g i n g ) caused s i l t a t i o n i n r i v e r s which f l o o d e d f a r m l a n d s . Y i e l d o f r i c e was r e d u c e d . Heavy and r a p i d s i l t a t i o n i n Lake Limboto and f l o o d s i n North Sulawesi were r e p o r t e d by G i n t i n g s ( 1 9 7 3 ) due t o s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e catchment a r e a s .
I n 1952
,t h e a r e a o f Lake Limboto was 5
,000 ha w i t h a maximum d e p t h o f 24m. The l a k e h a s now d e c r e a s e d t o 3
,500 ha w i t h a d e p t h o f o n l y 8m. The f l o o d i n g i n t h e a r e a was s o s e r i o u s t h a t t h e l o c a l government i s s u e d o r d e r i n 1971 t o move t h e f a r m e r s from t h e s t e e p mountains down t o t h e l o w l a n d s .
Changes i n s o i l ρ r o p e r t i e s
The e f f e c t s o f s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n on s o i l p r o p e r t i e s a r e r a t h e r w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d and have been reviewed by a number o f a u t h o r s (Nye and Greenland 1960
,1 9 6 4 ; Sanches 1 9 7 2 ; Greenland 1 9 7 4 ) . The c o n v e r s i o n o f f o r e s t s t o garden by s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n i s
,p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a r e a s w i t h h i g h r a i n f a l l
,accompanied by d e c r e a s e s i n s o i l o r g a n i c carbon
,t o t a l n i t r o g e n
,c a t i o n exchange c a p a c i t y
,C:N r a t i o
,and i n c r e a s e s i n b u l k d e n s i t y
,t o t a l b a s e c o n t e n t and b a s e s a t u r a t i o n (Manner 1 9 7 6 ; Wood 1 9 7 9 ) . A v a i l a b l e phosphorus showed a marked d e c l i n e w i t h c u l t i v a t i o n
Bleeker ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e p o r t s s o i l a n a l y s e s r e s u l t s t a k e n from p r i m a r y f o r e s t
,g a r d e n s and g r a s s l a n d s
b o t h i n w e t t e r a s w e l l a s d r i e r p l a c e s i n t h e Highlands o f PNG. I n a l m o s t a l l c h a r a c t e r s
examined
,f o r e s t s o i l s had h i g h e r c o n t e n
t.Removal o f r a i n f o r e s t v e g e t a t i o n f o l l o w e d by c u l t i v a t i o n
,t h u s
,l e a d s t o d e c l i n e i n s o i l f e r t i l i t y . T a b l e s i n Anon (
1978 7 4 ‑ 7 5 ) c l e a r l y show t h e s e t r e n d s i n ch e mic a l s o i l p r o p e r t i e s . Furthermore s o i l p r o f i l e s i n g r a s s l a n d a r e o f t e n t r u n c a t e d o r have very s h a l l o w t o p s o i l o r a r e w a t e r l o g g e d .
W i l d l i f e
With removal o f v e g e t a t i o n c o v e r
,changes i n k i n d and number o f w i l d l i f e can be e x p e c t e d . Where l o n g f a l l o w s y s t e m s p r e v a i l
,f u l l r e c o v e r y on d i s t u r b e d s i t e s i s p o t e n t i a l l y r a p i d . However
,r e g u l a r h u n t i n g by s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t o r s t o supplement t h e i r d i e t
,p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s r e s u l t s i n m o d i f i c a t i o n o f w i l d l i f e . On t h e o t h e r hand where f o r e s t s u r v i v e s around swiddens
,c e r t a i n s p e c i e s a r e encouraged due t o a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c r o p s which i s t o l e r a t e d by t h e s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t o r s f o r h u n t i n g . With s h o r t f a l l o w c r o p p i n g s y s t e m s were c r o p p i n g i s r e p l a c e d by permanent p a s t u r e o r savanna
,t h e e f f e c t on w i l d l i f e i s d e v a s t a t i n g (Anon
,1 9 7 8 ) .
Hydrology
Where v e g e t a t i o n removal f o r s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n i s complete
,p a r t i c u l a r l y on s t e e p s l o p e s under h i g h p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e
,hydrology i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o d i f i e d . The r u n ‑ o f f i s more r a p i d r e s u l t i n g i n s h o r t e r b u t h i g h e r and more d e s t r u c t i v e f l o o d l e v e l s . S o i l s d r y o u t more r a p i d l y a f f e c t i n g v e g e t a t i o n and c r o p s and lower w a t e r g a b l e s c a u s e lower s t r e a m l e v e l s d u r i n g t h e d r y s e a s o n ( H a t c h 1980
,1 9 8 2 ; Anon
,1 9 7 8 ) .
T a b l e 2 . Comparative Streamflow and Sediment Y i e l d from Burned and Unburned G r a s s l a n d Watersheds
W a t e r s h e d T r e a t m e n t Monthly Mean Sediment Y i e l d Burned 402.79
(kg/ha)Unburned 2 7 8 . 1 8
T a b l e 3 . Hydrology o f D i f f e r e n t Landuse
T r e a t m e n t S u r f a c e R u n o f f Sediment Y i e l d
O v e r g r a z e d P i n e 1 5 2 . 7 7 (mm/yr) 5
l.352 ( t o n / h a / y r )
Benguet P i n e P l a n t a t i o n 5 0 . 6 9 1 1 . 3 4 2
C l i m a t e
Data on t h e e f f e c t o f s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n on c l i m a t e i s r a r e . M i c r o ‑ c l i m a t e s a r e o b v i o u s l y c h a n g e d . Haze from swidden f i r e s may c o v e r v a s t a r e a s r e d u c i n g s o l a r r a d i a t i o n r e a c h i n g t h e g r o u n d . Extensive c l e a r i n g must a f f e c t e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n t o o (Anon
,1 9 7 8 ) .
AL TERNATIVES TO AND CONTROL OF SHIFTING CUL TIVATION
Two f a c t s o f s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n have been w e l l ‑ e s t a b l i s h e d :
1 . S h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n p r o v i d e s a b a r e ml
ll1mUm l e v e l o f s u b s i s t e n c e f o r t h e p e o p l e who p r a c t i s e i t though under c e r t a i n socio‑economic and c l i m a t e ‑ e d a p h i c s i t u a t i o n s
,t h i s may b e t h e o n l y way o f l i f e .
2 . With i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n and r e d u c t i o n i n f a l l o w p e r i o d i n most o f t h e a r e a s i n A s i a ‑ P a c i f i c where t h e p r a c t i c e i s s t i l l common
,s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e s p r e a d o f i n e r t a n t h r o p o g e n i c g r a s s l a n d s
,d e s t r u c t i o n and d e g r a d a t i o n o f i n v a l u a b l e f o r e s t r e s o u r c e and i n c r e a s e i n s o i l e r o s i o n which i n t u r n h a s a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d a number o f h y d r o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s .
I n o t h e r words
,swidden i s a way o f l i f e which c h a r a c t e r i z e s low q u a l i t y o f l i f e w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e g r a d i n g q u a l i t y o f t h e environment and d e s t r u c t i o n and d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ( f o r e s t
,s o i l
,w a t e r ) .
I n s p i t e o f t h e s e f a c t s
,t h e r e i s no e vi de nc e t h a t s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n i s r e d u c i n g ( i n t e r m s o f a r e a o r number o f p e o p l e ) and w i l l j u s t " g o away" a s g e n e r a l development t a k e s p l a c e . Very c o n s c i o u s and determined e f f o r t s have been made t o s e e k a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e p r o c e s s w i t h v a r y i n g s u c c e s s . These a l t e r n a t i v e s can be b r o a d l y d i s c u s s e d under two h e a d s :
(1)L e g i s l a t i v e and p u n i t i v e approach
,and
(2)Improvement o f s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n system w i t h a view t o u l t i m a t e l y c o n v e r t swiddening i n t o s e d e n t a r y t y p e o f a g r i c u l t u r e . The l a t t e r can f u r t h e r b e d i v i d e d i n t o two heads
, (1)1 n s i t u improvement o f swidden f a r m i n g
,and ( i i ) Improvement t h r o u g h r e g r o u p i n g o r r e s e t t l e m e n t o f s w i d d e n e r s .
1m
ρr o v e m e n t o f s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n s y s t e m s I n ‑ s i t u improvement
C o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t s have been d i r e c t e d t o i n t e n s i f y and s y s t e m a t i z e s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n
p r a c t i c e s w i t h a view t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y and r a i s e t h e l e v e l o f l i v i n g s t a n d a r d o f t h e s w i d d e n e r s on t h e one hand and mlmmlZe t h e i l l ‑ e f f e c t s ( m a l n u t r i t i o n
,d e s t r u c t i o n o f n a t u r a l r e g e n e r a t i i o n
,expansion o f g r a s s l a n d
,s o i l e r o s i o n
,e t c . ) on t h e o t h e
r.C a r e f u l l y managed c r o p f a l l o w system
A c l a s s i c a l example i s t h e c o r r i d o r s y s t e m " t r i e d by t h e B e l g i a n s i n t h e Congo. U n d e r t h i s system
,t h e f o r e s t was d i v i d e d i n t o 100m s t r i p s
,o r i e n t e d e a s t t o west t o maximize s u n l i g h t p e n e t r a t i o n . Every y e a r a l t e r n a t e c o r r i d o r s were c l e a r e d
,l e a v i n g f o r e s t f a l l o w on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e c l e a r e d s t r i p s . The number o f c o r r i d o r s i n a management u n i t was t h e sum o f t h e number o f y e a r s i n c r o p s and t h e n um b e r o f y e a r s i n f a l l o w . N 0 such t e c h n i q u e s have been t r i e d i n t h e A s i a ‑ P a c i f i c r e g i o n though even i n Congo
,t h e system f e l l i n t o d i s ‑ u s e because i t r e q u i r e d o v e r l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d methods (Weinstock
,1 9 8 4 )
I n t r o d u c t i o n o f new c r o p v a r i e t i e s
I n t r a d i t i o n a l a g r o f o r e s t r y s y s t e m s
,c o n t i n u o u s a t t e m p t s have been made t o i n t r o d u c e new c r o p s p e c i e s and v a r i e t i e s
,b e s i d e s t h e main s t a p l e c r o p
,which may b e h i l l paddy a s i n Malaysia
,I n d o n e s i a and Thailand
,t a r o o r sweet p o t a t o a s i n PNG. I t h a s t h r e e o b j e c t i v e s
,v i z . ; ( i ) t o supplement t h e y i e l d ; ( i i ) t o add v a r i e t i e s t o t h e d i e t ; and ( i i i ) t o guard a g a i n s t t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e main c r o p t h r o u g h u n f a v o u r a b l e c l i m a t e
,i n s e c t p e s t o r d i s e a s e s . I n r e c e n t y e a r s
,i t h a s a l s o r e s u l t e d i n e a r n i n g some c a s h . The example o f Wancho ( i n I n d i a ) c u l t i v a t i n g m i l l e t
,maize
,arum
,t a p i o c a
,l o c a l o a r
,c h i l l i
,g i n g e r and Thai s w i d d e n e r s growing c o r n
,m i l l e t s p e p p e r s
うopium
,p o t a t o e s
,yams
,v e g e t a b l e s
,e t c . b e s i d e s r i c e shows t h i s t r e n d
I n Papua N ew Guinea
,a c c o r d i n g t o Powell (
19 7 6 )
,a s many a s 251 p l a n t s p e c i e s ( c u l t i v a t e d
,s e m i ‑ d o m e s t i c a t e d and w i l d ) a r e used a s f o o d ( T a b l e 4 ) . B e s i d e s
,i n a l m o s t a l l t h e c o u n t r i e s
,t r a d i t i o n a l communities depending upon s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n supplement t h e i r d i e t which i s
i n v a r i a b l y c a r b o h y d r a t e r i c h w i t h h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g . I n some c o u n t r i e s
, (In d i a
,Malaysia
,T h a i l a n d ) a t t e m p t s have been made t o i n t r o d u c e h o r t i c u l t u r e e x t e n s i v e l y on t h e f i e l d n o r m a l l y
marked f o r s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n . Under t h e s e schemes
,p i n e a p p l e
,o r a n g e and banana arebeing
s u c c e s s f u l l y grown i n many l o c a l i t i e s . Problems o f t r a n s p o r t and m a r k e t i n g have
,however
,a p p e a re d a s t h e main h u r d l e i n t h e growth o f h o r t i c u l t u r e
Table 4 . Numbers o f p l a n t species used f o r s u b s i s t e n c e purposes (Papua New Guinea)
Use Numbers
Foods 2 5 1
S t i m u l a n t s
,e t c 1 8 M e d i c a l ‑ c u t s 2 3
‑ b u r n s 8
‑ s o r e s 5 2
‑pams
,e t c 4 9
‑ f o o t h a c h e
,e t c 2 2 f e v e r s
,e t c 2 5 coughs
,e t c . 3 8
‑ i n t e s t i n a l a i l m e n t s 5 7
一
c h i l d b i r t ha n d f e r t i
1it y 2 5
Magic 1 1 5
Weapons a n d t o o l s 8 0 Canoes and r a f t s 3 9 House b u i l d i n g
,e t c 1 3 6
Ropes 4 0
Cords a n d t e x t i l e s 4 6 F ood p r e p a r a t i o n
,u t e n s i l s 9 0
D e c o r a t i o n 9 0
A r t 6 0
H u n t i n g a n d f i s h i n g 4 3
一 一 一
S o u r c e : Powell ( 1 9 7 6 )
l m p r o v e m e n t o f c u l t i v a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
Over t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e
,by e x p e r i e n c e
,a number o f improvements i n agronomic t e c h n i q u e s have been c a r r i e d o u t by t h e swiddeners themselves
,such a s
( i ) S o i l f e r t i l i t y maintenance through p l a n t i n g o f f a l l o w s w i t h n i t r o g e n f i x i n g p l a n t s such a s C a s u a r i n a
,L e u c a e n a composting and crop r o t a t i o n with winged b e a n . (Thiagalingam and Fahmy
,1 9 8 1 ) .
( i i ) Techniques o f s o i l t i l l a g e
,such a s
,mounds o f Enga (PNG) which f a c i l i t a t e d r a i n a g e
( i i i ) S o i l e r o s i o n c o n t r o l through placement o f l o g s
,p l a n t i n g o f cover c r o p s and b u i l d i n g
f u r r o w s a l o n g t h e s l o p e s .
( i v ) Deep hoeing o f yams t o g e t l a r g e t u b e r s .
(v)B u i l d i n g t e r r a c e s .
いi)
Use o f mixed c r o p p i n g and d i f f e r e n t c u l t i v a r s w i t h i n each s p e c i e s t o s u i t v a r i e d t a s t e s and r e q u i r e m e n t s which a t t h e same t i m e o f f e r broad p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t p e s t s and d i s e a s e s
か
司
S i l v i c u l t u r e management o f t r e e food c r o p s such a s
,t u l i p and sago
いi i ) P r o g r e s s i v e h a r v e s t i n g o f c e r t a i n c r o p s a s s u r i n g c o n t i n u o u s food s u p p l i e s .
I n r e c e n t y e a r s
,government sponsored schemes have encouraged t e r r a c e c u l t i v a t i o n ( H a t c h 1 9 8 1 ) s i n c e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n can no l o n g e r a d e q u a t e l y f u l f i l l i t s r o l e o f s u b s i s t e n c e f a r m i n g and i s c a u s i n g problems o f an e n v i r o n m e n t a l and economic n a t u r e
,t h e v i a b i l i t y o f u s i n g r e v e r s e ‑ s l o p e d ( d r y ) bench t e r r a c e s f o r growing h i l l paddy on a s u s t a i n a b l e a n n u a l b a s i s i s b e i n g t e s t e d i n Sarawa
k. Ifc o n v e r s i o n t o s e t t l e d h i l l paddy f a r m i n g on t e r r a c e s can b e e f f e c t e d
,t h e n l a r g e a r e a s o f l a n d c u r r e n t l y w i t h i n t h e s h i f t i n g c y c l e would be r e l e a s e d f o r more a p p r o p r i a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s o r f o r e s t r y .
I n I n d i a
,i n some p r o v i n c e s
,t h e Department o f Conservation h a s s t e p p e d i n t o b u i l d t e r r a c e s under t h e Jhum (swidden c u l t i v a t i o n ) c o n t r o l scheme. During t h e p e r i o d 1974‑76
,a l t o g e t h e r 52 hundred thousand (Borah and Goswami
,1 9 7 7 ) . I n a s t u d y
,i t was r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e t o t a l c o s t o f r e s e t t l e m e n t o v e r t h e t h r e e ‑ y e a r p e r i o d would b e a b o u t R s . 1 1
,0 0 0 . Terraced paddy was e x p e c t ed t o y i e l d a ml
ll1mUm o f 1
,500kg p e r ha a g a i n s t t h e maximum Jhum y i e l d o f 600 t o 700kg (Gupta and Sambrani
,1 9 7 8 ) .
However
,s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e e f f o r t s have n o t been v e r y s u c c e s s f u l e v e r y w h e r e . The main r e a s o n s f o r t h e l a c k o f r e s p o n s e t o t h e scheme were (Roy Burman and Sharma
,1 9 7 0 ) :
( i ) The n a t u r e o f t h e t e r r a i n i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r wet o r t e r r a c e c u l t i v a t i o n ;
(川