in EFL Reading Class
著者
Birendra Bhaila
雑誌名
dialogos
号
11
ページ
269-282
発行年
2011-03
URL
http://id.nii.ac.jp/1060/00005064/
Creative Commons : 表示 - 非営利 - 改変禁止 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.jaCultivatingtheHigherOrderThinkingAbilityin
EFLReadingClass
BirendraBhaila Thispaperhasthreegoals.Thefirstgoalistoselectsuitableparameters fOrcategorizingthethinkinglevelrequiredfOrquestions,problems,activitiesor exercisesinEFLreadingmaterial.Thesecondgoalistoanalyzetheactivities usedinteachingandleamingsknlsandstrategiesinpre-reading,while-reading andafter-readingstages.ThethirdgoalistoproposeactivitiesfOrcultivating higherorderthinkingskills. 1．Background Atthebeginningofthetwenty-firstcentury,manyinternationaleducational institutionsmtroducednewvisionsofeducationdemandingfOrhigherlevelsof thinkingabilitiesinthestudentstOsolvethecomingproblemsandchallenges. UNESCOhasproposedanewkindofeducationfOrthetwenty-firstcentury withitsfUndamentalprinciplesbaseduponfOurpillars:learningtoknow, learningtodo,leamingtolivetogetherandlearningtobe.Areportknownas DelorsReportreasserted; 66Educationshouldcontributetoeveryperson'scompletedevelopment -mindandbody,intelligence,sensitivity,aestheticappreciationand spirituality.Allpeopleshouldreceiveintheirchildhoodandyouthan educationthatequipsthemtodeveloptheirownindependent,criticalway ofthinkingandjudgmentsothattheycanmakeuptheirownmindson thebestcoursesofactioninthedifferentcircumstancesintheirlives.'， (L"r"加g:rheT花as"だWI伽",thereporttoUNESCO)TheProgrammefOrlntemationalStudentAssessment(PISA)developsa measurementscaletoseehowwelll5-yearoldstudentsarepreparedtomeet thechallengestheymayencounterintheirfUturelife.ItexaminesstudentJ cognitiveabilitytoapply,renectandevaluatethegiveninfOnnationinout-of Schoolenvironments. Agrowingnumberofcountriesshowasimilarkindofmovementsand approachestoreformtheireducationalpolicies,ohjectives,andcurriculi. Obviously,theyvaryfromcountrytocountry,butonethingiscommon; thateducationshouldprepareeveryindividualtosolveeverydayissuesand challengesthatthenewcentulybrings(fOrexampleJapanandFinland).Japan, fOrinstance,refOrmeditseducationalpoliciesinl998bygivingastronger emphasisonthecultivationofabilitytothink: ....…Thereisaneedtosecurelyestablishbasicandfundamental knowledgeandskills,ontheotherhand,whilereciprocallycultivatingthe abilitytothink,judgeandexpressthroughtheuseofthoseskillsonthe otherhand.….''(p.31MEXT;Japan). Thesekindsofmovementsrevealthattillnowschooleducationhas nottriedtopreparetheirstudenttoactivelytacklewithrealworldissues. Knowledgeandexperiencesobtainedinschoolarefarremovedfromthose whichstudentsencounterintheireverydaylife.Moreover,schooleducation attacheslittleimportancetostudents'ownexperience,knowledge,skillsthey getfromtherealworld・Thisimpliesthatactivitiesintheschool/classroom settingandactivitiesoutsidetheschoolaretwodifferentmattersasshownin figurel.
SchooIEd皿cation Realworld Figurel.Relationbetweenschooleducationandrealworld Intherealworldsituation,everyonehastoexpresstheirownopinions, ideas,impressionsandthoughtseitherbyspeakingorbywriting.Theyhave topreparethemselvesfOractivitieslike:replyingaletter,discussion,debating, negotiating,givingreasons,andpersuading.Ontheotherhand,schooleducation hasendeavoredtotransmitfactualknowledgeandtestingorexaminingstudents' abilitytomemorizeorrecallinformationontextbookmaterials.Learning intheclassroomhasnotbeenintendedastoencouragelearnerstoproduce individual'sopinions,ideasandothercapabilities.Themainoqectiveofthe twenty-firstcenturyeducationalrefOrms,however,allseemtotrytofUlfillthis gapbycultivatinghigherthinkingabilitytothestudent(figure2), SchoolEducationHigherOrderThinking Realworld Figure2･RoleofHigherOrderThinkingLevel
Ahigherorderthinkingabilityinthestudentmakesabridgebetween thetwospheres:classroomenvironmentandtherealworld.Itmeansthatthe studentacquiresbasicandfUndamentalknowledgeandskills廿ominstruction ortextbook,andtheyalsoneedtolearntouseorapplytheminnon-school environments.ItalsoindicatesmemorizingandunderstandingtheinfOnnation alonemaynotabletosolvenewproblems,answersnewquestions,orhelpto leamnewinfOnnation.Whatthestudentsneedtodototransferacquiredskills intoanewsituationistoacquirehigher-orderthinkingskills.Here,aquestion arises;Aretherelower-orderandhigher-orderthinkingskills？ I1.Bloom'smxonomyofEducationalOlliectives AnAmericaneducationalpsychologist,B.S.Bloom'sfOnnulainthereport "TheThxonomyofEducationalOhjectives,TheClassificationofEducational Goals,Handbookl:CognitiveDomain,''isthemostwidelyusedparameters, knownas6GBloom'sThxonomy'',tomeasurethethinkingabilitythatstudents showinlearningactivities.Bloom'staxonomyinthecognitivedomainisa frameworkfOrcategorizingthethinkinglevelsrequiredbyspecificquestions, problems,activitiesorexercises.Itidentifiessixmajorcategoriesofthinking: knowledge,comprehension,application,analysis,synthesisandevaluation,and actionwords(verbs)fOreachlevel.Sinceitspublication,morethan20attempts haveappearedtoupdateandimprovethescheme(Marzanoet.al.,2007,p.5). Amongthem,DavidKrathwohl-aco-authoroftheoriginalThxonomyandhis teampublishedin2001;6GAtaxonomyfOrleaming,teachingandassessing:A revisionofBloom'staxonomyofeducationalolJectives".Theymademainly twochanges;First,theychangedthedescriptivetermsfromnounstoverbs (knowledgeintoremember,comprehensionintounderstand,applicationinto apply,analysisintoanalyze,evaluationintoevaluateandsynthesisintocreate),
andsecond,thelasttwocategorieshavebeenreversed,puttingcreate(synthesis) atthetopasthemostcomplexlevel(figure3).
鵬
為聰伽sis
TheoriginalTaxonomy TherevisedTaxonomy Figure3.Bloom'soriginalTaxonomyandrevisedversionofcognitivedomain TherevisedTaxonomyisbasedonabroadervisionoflearningthat mcludesnotonlyacquiringknowledgebutalsotheabilitytouseknowledgeina varietyofnewsituations.Itistabulatedasfbllows: Tablel:ArevisionofBloom'staxonomyfbrcognitivedomain Cognitiveprocess Remember Understand Apply Analysls Eval皿麺e DEFINrmON RememberinginvolvesretrievingrelevantinfOnnationfOnnlongterm memoryeitherbyrecognizingorl巳calling. Itistheabilitytoconstructorgraspthemeaningfromverbal,written orsymbolicmaterialsbyinterpreting,classifying,summarizing, comparing,infelTing,exemplifying,andexplaining. Inapplicationlevel,studentuseinfOnnationorconcepttoperfOrm exercisesorsolveproblems.Theapplycategoryconsistsoftwo cognitiveprocesses:executing-whentheprocedureisfamiliarand implementing-whentheprocedureisunfamiliar. StudentbreaksinfOrmationorconceptsintopartstounderstandit moreclearlyorfUllybydifferentiating,organizingandattributing.It emphasizesthedetectionofrelationshipsofthepartsandthewaythey areo唱anlzed． Evaluateisdefinedasmakingjudgmentsbasedoncriteriaand standards.Thiscategoryincludesthecognitiveprocessofchecking (whichreferstojudgmentsintennsofinternalevidence)andcritiquing (whichreferstojudgmentsbasedonexternalcriteria).Create Createinvolvesputtingelementstogethertoformawhole・Create involveshavingstudentsproduceanoriginalproduct.Thecreatlve processcanbebrokenintothreephases:(a)generating-problem rep1℃sentation,inwhichastudentattemptstounderstandthetaskand generatepossiblesolutions;(b)planning-solutionplanning,inwhicha smdentexaminesthepossibilitiesanddevisesaworkableplan;and(c) producing-solutionexecution,inwhichastudentsuccessfUllycames outtheplan. Thistaxonomyshowsthattherearelowerandhigherorderthinking levels.Rememberisthelowestandcreateisthehighestlevelinthinking. Neitheroneortwosuhjectsnoroneortwoacademicyearscancultivatethese skills.Needlesstosay,alltheleamingactivitiesareexpectedtoencourageand introducesuchactivitiesinfUsedinleamingandteachingmaterials.Onthebasis oftherevisedThxonomy,thispaperanalyzesreadingactivitiesinEFLclassesin ordertodetenninetheircognitivelevel. III．Readingprocess ReadingactivitiesinEFLclassroomareperfbrmedinthreestages:Pre-reading,whilereadingandafterreading.
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Pre-reading whilereading afterreading A･Pre-reading Beforestartingtoreadthetext,studentswillengageinpre-reading activities.Thepurposesoftheseactivitiesaretocreateinterest,tomotivate students,toactivatewhatthestudentSalreadyknows,andtopreparethemfOr whattheyaregoingtoread.AccordingtoBrown(p.315,2001): Beforeyouread:Spendsometimeintroducingatopic,encouragingskimming,scanning,predicting,andactivatingschemata・Studentscan bringthebestoftheirknowledgeandskillstoatextwhentheyhavebeen givenachanceto6Geaseinto''thepassage. Anumberofstrategiesandactivitiesareproposedforthisstage,for example: 1.ActivitiesfOractivatingschemata:Activatingschemata,thatis, studentrbackgroundknowledgeisvitalfOrreadingeffectively.EFLstudents willneedtodrawonappropriatepreviousknowledgefromlongtennmemory toreachsatisfactorycomprehensionofthetext・Itiscommonlyknownas brainstormingandperfOnnedasfOllows: A)Q"es"o"加g:Onetypeofactivatingschemataactivityisquestioning. Studentstrytoanswerquestionsaboutkeywordsorkeyconcepts,fbrexample; 66whatdoyouknowabout....?''toguessorpredictaboutthethemeofthetext. B)Se碗α""c加叩:Tbachergivesakeywordorakeyconceptfromthetext. Studentsaretheninvitedtorecallormemorizewords,phrasesandconcepts fromtheirbackgroundknowledgeasmuchastheycan.Thewordsandconcepts arethenclassifiedwithacertainprinciplebythestudents. 2.Previewthetextbyskimmingandscanningtogetasenseofthe overallmeaning. Sk加加加g:Skimmingmeanstoreadquickly-horizontally-throughthe texttogetagistofthecontent.Onewayofdoingitisbyreadingonlythetopic sentenceandconcludingsentenceofeachparagraph.Themainideacanbe predictedbyglancingquicklyattitleandsubtitles,pictures,diagrams,orcharts mthetext・Theyareusuallycloselyconnectedtotheauthor'sideasandcontent. So,basedonanyofthem,studentscanmakepredictionsaboutthecontentof thetext.
Scα""加g:Scanningmeanstoreadquickly-verticallyordiagonally-tofind aspecificpieceofinfOnnation(singlewords,facts,dates,names,ordetails). Thisactivityissuitablewhenstudentareaskedorneedtofindparticular infOnnation. ActivitiesfOractivatingschemataremindstudentswhattheyalreadyknow aboutthepresentmaterial・So,theseactivitiesbelongtoRecallinthetaxonomy table.Skimmingandscanningactivitiesrequirethelearnertorecognizeor identifysomeinfOrmationinthematerialgiven.SinceRecallandRecognize arebothRemembercategoryactivitiesinthetaxonomy,pre-readingactivities demandlowlevelthinking. B.Whilereading Atthisstagestudentsreadthetextindetailtofindoutmainideasandtheir supportingdetailsbycorrelatingandinterpretingwithwhatthestudentsalready knowaboutthetext.Theychecktheirhypothesis,compareandevaluatethe textwiththeirschemata,andsearchfOrnewinfOnnation.Hanner(2001,p､199-209)suggeststhattogetmaximumbenefitfromtheirreading,studentsneedto invoIvethemselvesinbothextensiveandintensivereading.Extensivereading methodconcemedwithfindingoutthemeaningwhileintensivereadingfOcuses onlanguage.Atthisstagestudentstakenotes,retrievethemostimportantpoints inthetexttosummarizeandlearnnewvocabulariesandgrammaticalitems.At thisstage,fOllowingactivitiescanbeintroduced: 3.Wb戒w〃ﾉ'vocα伽ﾉary:Studentshighlightorunderlinedifficultor unknownwordsandphrases,andaccesstodictionaryorasksomeone fOrthemeaning.Theymayalsobreakawordintoprefixorsuffixand stemfOrthemeaningatthesentencelevel.Theseactivitiescanhelp studenttoguessthemeaningofaword.
4.Readinginchunks:Studentsdivideacomplexsentenceintosense groupstounderstand.Itcanbedonebyusingslashmarkbetween subjectandpredicate,phrases,clauses,befOretheconjunction,afterthe punctuationmalksetc. 5.Co"siderdisco"rse加arkersα"。〃o"o""s:Discoursemarkersare wordsandphraseslike/ioweveJ;r伽s,"@oreov"jirsrqfα",rOS"腕 叩etc.whichconnecttwoormoresentences・Knowledgeabout thesemarkersandpronounshelpstounderstandtherelationbetween sentencesandpiecesofinfOnnation. 6.Pqrqgr叩ル〃αdi"g:Aparagraphisagroupofsentencesaboutonemain idea.Ithasmainlythreeparts:topicsentence,supportingsentencesand concludingsentence.Knowledgeonparagraphstructurehelpsstudents tofindmaininfOnnation,andalsoenablesthemtopredictwhatwill comeorhappenmcomingparagraph. 7.Reqd加gberwee"rhe〃"es:StudentsworkwithgiveninfOrmationto inferimplicitlystatedconceptorprinciple. 8.Q"es"o"sα〃α"swers:Someparagraphshaveaquestionorquestions atitsendtocheckstudentRunderstanding.Studentsalsoraisemany questionsduringreadingtochecktheirpriorknowledgeactivatedat pre-readingstage. 9.Nore"α〃"g:Stopthereadingatasuitablepointandpreparealist ofimportantormainpointineachparagraphfOrmakingsummary, discussionetc. Atthisstagestudentsreadorre-readthetexttocomprehenditandacquire infOnnation.StudentsconcentrateontheinfOnnationgiveninthematerial hawthemeaningfOnnit.Sincethemamohjectiveoftheseactivitiesis newinfOnnation.StudentsconcentrateontheinfOnnationgiveninthematenal anddrawthemeaningfOnnit.Sincethemamohjectiveoftheseactivitiesis tounderstandthematerial,theyobviouslyfallintoUnderstandcategoryofthe
taxonomy C、AfterReading Mostoftheactivitiesfrompre-readingandwhile-readingarereusedatthis stagetocheckifstudentshaveunderstoodthemainthemeornot.Accordingto Brown(2001,p.315): Afteryouread:ComprehensionquestionsarejustonefOrmofactivity appropriatefOrpost-reading.Alsoconsidervocabularystudy,identifying theauthor'spuIpose,discussiontheauthor'slineofreasoning,examining grammaticalstructures,orsteeringstudentstowardafOllowupwriting exerc1se． ActivitiesfOrcomprehensionlikescanningthetextfOrkeyvocabulary, judgingtrueorfalse,matching,completingthestory,summarizing,andasking comprehensionquestionsareusuallyperfonnedafterreadingtocheckorreview thematerial.Here,itisworthcategorizingcomprehensionquestionsafter reading.ChristineNuttall(1996,R187-189)offered5typesofcomprehension questionsmostlyusedatthisstage. 10.Q"es"o"so〃ﾉ"eraﾉco"@prehe"sio":Referstoanunderstandingof thestraightfOrwardmeaningorthetext,suchasfacts,vocabulary, dates,times,andlocations.Questionsofliteralcomprehensioncanbe answereddirectlyandexplicitlyaskingthewordsfromthetext. ll.Q"es"o"s加voM"greo増α"jzα"o〃or花加e叩'で”"o":Thesequestions arebasedonaliteralunderstandingofthetext;studentsmustcollect informationfromvariouspartsofthetextandcombinethemfor additionalunderstanding.Itissomewhatmoredifficultthanliteral questions.
l2.Q"es"o"sqfj峡だ"ce:Inferencequestionsarebasedonmaterialthat isinthetextbutnotexplicitlystated.Theanswerisnotinthetextbut thereismfOrmationinthetext,orinfbrmationarescatteredthroughout thetextandstudentshavetoputthemtogethel: 13.Q"es"o"sqfperso"αﾉだ”o"se:Thesetypesofquestionsaskstudents torespondwiththeirfeelingstowardsthetext,writeropinion,about aparticularcharacter'sbehavior,etc.Studentsanswerbyrefemngto relevantinfOrmationinthetext.Forexample:&6Whatisyouropinion about…?''6GHowwouldyoufeelifyouwere…?'',etc. 14.Q"es"o"sqf〃〃jc"o":ThesequestionsinvoIvestudentstouseboth theirunderstandingofthepassageandtheirownknowledgeofthe topicandrelatedmatterstodetenninewhatmighthappennext.Post-readingpredictionquestionsgenerallyhavenorightanswers.However, predictionmustbesupportedbyinfbnnationfromthetext. Themainpurposeofafter-readingactivitiesistocheckifstudenthas understooditornot,andreviewthematerial.Mostoftheactivitiesdiscussed abovefallintheUnderstandcategoryexceptquestionsrequiringpersonal responsewhichbelongstoApplycategory. IVReadingprocessandtheircognitivelevels Analysisofthesethreereadingprocesses;pre-reading,while-readingand aftelereadingindicateswhatkindofthinkinglevelisusedineachprocessand whatskillsarenot.Readingprocessesdiscussedaboverequireonlythreebasic thinkingskillsinreadingclass(Remember,UnderstandandApply)asshown below.
CognitiveSkillsRemember UnderStand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create Activitiesno． land2 3.4.5.6.7.8,9 13 10,11,12andl4 TheseskillshelptoacquirebasicorfUndamentalknowledgeandskills fromthematerial.Theyareessentialbutnotenoughformorecomplex tasks.Howcanlearnersacquireotherhigherorderthinkingskills,Analyze, EvaluateandCreate？HowcanwerelatecomprehendedinfOnnationtoactual requi1℃、entsintherealworld？Here,letmeproposethefbllowingactivitiesfOr eachlevelasafter-readingactivities. Higherorderthinkingskills Proposeactivities Analyze ●Askingquestionstodifferentiatetopicsentence, supportingsentencesandconcludingsentenceand analyzelelationshipsamongthem. ●Askingquestionstodeterminethewriter'spointof viewinaparticularidea. ●AsktopickupsomerelevantinfOnnationfOnnthe materialtowriteanessayorreport. Evaluate ●Mostpopularactivityinthisareaisdebating.Itcan beperfonnedjustbypickingonemainideafOnnthe materialandaskingstudentstojudge. ●Asktofindorcollectthematerialwrittenonthesame topicbyvarioussourcesanddecidewhichoneisbetter orsuitable． Create ●'Ibacquirethisskillstudentshavetoproducetheirown productsuchas,anessay,areport,poemandstory・So, compositionexercisecanbeusedinthiscategory． Higherorderthinkingabilitycanbecultivatedbyaddingafewactivities inafterereadingstage.Theseactivitiesrequirestudentstopalticipateinreal-life issues.Theycollectdata,infOnnation,analyze,evaluateandcreatetheirown
originalproduct ConcluSion Fromthebeginningofthetwenty-firstcentury,itwasrealizedthat educationshouldprepareeveryindividualtosolvefilturechallengesandissues. Asasolution,mostnationalandintemationaleducationalinstitutesrefOnned theireducationalvisionsfOcusingoncultivatingstudentrabilitiestothink. Activitiesforcultivatingahigherorderthinkingskillsshouldbeincluded throughoutteachingandlearningmaterialsinallgrades. Thispaperanalyzed,usingBIoom'srevisedtaxonomy(2001),theactivities mostlyusedinpre-reading,while-readingandafterreadinginEFLreading classroom.Thispapercoveredl4activitiesintotal.Amongthemtwoactivities inpre-1℃adingstagefallintoRemembercategory,11activitiesinwhile-Ieading andafteFreadingfallintoUnderstandcategoryandrestofoneactivitiesinafter readingisinApplylevel.Thisanalysisclarifiedthatreadingskillsandstrategies fOrEFLreadingdonothaveactivitieswhichareintendedfOrcultivatinghigher orderthinkingskills.Thus,thispaperproposedsomeactivitiesfOrAnalyze, EvaluateandCreatelevelsfOrafter-readingstage.Thehigherorderthinking abilitycanbecultivatedbyaddingafewactivitiestothetextbookmaterials.
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