̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᢩܐձཝకፑˁʠȽɤɩ
ǵᩃǵǵǵ*
A Consideration of Poverty Reduction Policy in Tanzania
IKENO Jun*The poverty reduction regime is replacing the structural adjustment regime in the world of development, and Tanzania, one of the poorest countries, has not escaped this trend. Here, I examine three constraints of Tanzania’s present poverty reduction policy. The fi rst constraint is lack of “ownership” of the national policy by Tanzanian government. Like the structural adjustment program, the poverty reduction policy was imposed by donors as a conditionality for external debt reduction under the HIPC initiative. Tanzanian bureaucrats are able to prepare policy papers which the donors require, but they lack the enthusiasm and dynamism to achieve the externally imposed policy objectives. The second constraint is that the target of the policy is vague. Since independence, Tanzanian government has produced a series of national development programs with over optimistic objectives and unrealistic target fi gures; and this attitude toward planning is maintained in the poverty reduction policy. In this case, however, the government must demonstrate that the policy is achieving progress to donors. To give the appearance of performing this assignment well, the government tried to lower the hurdle by extending the period for halving of poverty and by underestimating the poverty rate. The third constraint is that the rural people who are the main target group of this policy are only half-heartedly committed to the policy. Rural people have fresh and unhappy memories of government policies on education and decentralization. These were components of government-led development during the heyday of the Ujamaa policy in the 1970s. Rural people suspect that the present poverty reduction policy is a revival of the Ujamaa policy. They are likely to silently resist the current policy as they did the earlier macro policies. I will demonstrate that the rural people view the poverty reduction policy as another policy imposed “from above,” and the government views it as another imposed “from outside.” The policy emphasizing “ownership” and “participatory approach” has inconsistency between its ideal and reality. How the rural Tanzanians and their government survive as the real tough “customers” in the international forum of development is one of the attractive themes in the fi eld of the area studies.
* ϴᨊ߂߂ˏ˻ˏˏ̶͠ˡܩݖድድዀ⏋Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University
͉ȁ̲ȁ͛ȁͅ
ǵ1960 ॷБ՟ೝɴႶጓˁ᧒ଁɌɛȼɹˏ̶͠ˡᡉܕɻ⏋য়ಁɹᬖᇍᐁཕɹ࿈༑ˁ؝ȿɩ⏋ ݜೣᇕɴᐁཕଁᬏˁᩂែɐʳܕࢃᬖᇍᅭˁᅎɌɛ⏏1970 ॷБɴԂʳɭ⏋ᬖᇍᅭɻݜೣ ᇕᅊ༎ӱ (Basic Human Needs) ˏ̺ͦͻ̍ʍɭ߂ȷȼᩍ᥊ழɇʶ⏋ॶፈςᒶᇕɲᬖᇍȵʠ Ɋɇʶʳʭȩɴɲʳ⏏ɗɌɩ⏋1970 ॷБೢɴ᥇ιʛᐁཕลɴ᭒ɤɛˏ̶͠ˡᡉܕɻ⏋1980 ॷБ՟ೝȴʰ IMF ɭγᅠ᪃ȵᦽɐʳ෯ᦶᠭకፑ (Structural Adjustment Programme) ˁࢷ ԂɌ⏋కঌɹ৲ւˁᑘࢸɐʳ॑ݭᐁཕ⏋ᐁཕᕶᅓˁᦽɌɩȷɛ⏏ɌȴɌɲȵʰ⏋ᐁཕ ลˁᔵɐʳɛʠɴɻ෯ᦶᠭకፑɹࢷԂɻέخ᧫ɫȡʳɴɌɩʢ⏋ɗɹࡸేɴکᰍȵȡʳ ɭ UNICEF⏋ILO⏋ECA ⏃ˏ̶͠ˡᐁཕࠇڊЦ⏆ፈɹܕᦹลᬠȴʰʢଫՠȵ۰ՏɌɛɛʠ⏋1990 ॷБГᭇɴ෯ᦶᠭకፑɻ᥄᧑ѹɇʶʳ⏏ȋϺᬚɹᰑˁɌɛᠭȍ (adjustment with a human face) ȡʳȦɻȋᐁཕᬖᇍȴʰЦᬖᇍʍȍɭȦȩ˽ͦͻˤͲɹʢɭɴ⏋ᬖᇍకፑɻᐁཕᇕ ЦᇕᓔɴʢᨗૅɌɛʢɹʍɭ᥊ழȵʠɊɇʶɛɹɫȡʳ⏏ʢɤɭʢ⏋Ʉɹʭȩɲᩍ᥊ழ ȵࡸᣒᇕɴᬖᇍకፑɴؙɇʶʳʭȩɴɲʳɹɻ 1990 ॷБץȴʰɫȡʱ⏋ჼܧȼɹܕɫ ᢩܐձཝȵᬖᇍకፑɹμਕᠩᰍɭɲɤɩȦʳ⏏ ǵΫ៨ɹʭȩɲˏ̶͠ˡᡉܕʁȦɩɻᬖᇍΫܕԃᖔɹᬖᇍᅭɹ᧦ɭ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᬖᇍ ᅭɹ᧦ɻʓʖ᥄ˁΥɴɌɩȦʳᩃ 2001⏏ؾܕకঌɻ 2000 ॷ 10 ɴᢩܐձཝకፑɹ μᇕɲకፑయೆɭɲʳȏᢩܐձཝᅭೆȑ(Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper)Tanzania 2000a ˁᇍᝠɌ⏋ჼܧɻɄɹయೆɴɤɩعᐁཕЦᨆᬐຘɴԍкᇕɲࡸేᅙˁсଁࡸేɌɦ ɦȡʳ⏏1) ᢩܐձཝɻ߹য়ɲܕࢃᬖᇍᇿฌɫȡʳȵ⏋ᬏॷ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏድɴਃϟɌɩȷɛݚፆ ᓔȴʰʛɩ⏋Ё܌ɹᢩܐձཝకፑɹᇿฌ᧒ଁɻȴɲʱȩȦ⏏ೣዣɫɻ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᢩܐձ ཝకፑɹୃȭʳݜೣᇕɲکᰍဣɹȩɠ 3 ဣˁʱΫɁ⏋ჿɌரኍɌɩʛɛȦ⏏
1ȅဓ̱͈࣭͂̀زٳอଽॐ
ǵፀ 1 ɴ୲Ɂʳʏȷکᰍဣɻ⏋ᢩܐձཝకፑɹμᇕɲсଁࡸేςкɫȡʳʏȷ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏ కঌɹςкਸ⏃initiative ȡʳȦɻ ownership⏆ɹ๕ᘺɫȡʳ⏏ɗɹ܍ɻ⏋ᢩܐձཝకፑȵؾ ܕకঌɴʭɤɩᕶᇍᇕɴృɛɲܕࢃᬖᇍకፑɭɌɩ᧧ʃʰʶɛకፑɭȦȩʭʱʢ⏋ܕ᭬ᇕɲ ᬖᇍஹ֖ɹ࿈༑ɹɲȴɫᨆȴʰໆࡴɇʶɩȷɛɭȦȩਸൔȵɲɄɭɴȡʳ⏏ᢩܐձཝక 1) 1990 ॷБೢȴʰ⏋ᢩܐձཝɴᬠɐʳకঌయೆȵሂ๖ȦɫԇɇʶɩȦʳ⏏ςឹɲయೆɻ⏋1998 ॷɹȏܕࢃᢩܐ ձཝᅭȑTanzania 1998⏋1999 ॷȏ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏ 2025 ॷᬖᇍᇿฌȑTanzania 1999⏋1999 ॷ 11 ȏᢩܐክኔ ѝ୭ฌȑ(Poverty and Welfare Monitoring Indicators)⏋2000 ॷ 5 ȏ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɴȲȿʳᢩܐ̾ͻ˽͞˓Ͳɹ෯፷ȑ (Developing a Poverty Baseline in Tanzania)⏋2000 ॷ 7 ȏ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɴȲȿʳᢩܐ̾ͻ˽͞˓Ͳɹఒ៝ȑTanzania 2000b⏋2001 ॷ 12 ȏᢩܐ̢͐̊ͻ͠Ͳ˫͇˽̊ͻ̺͞Ͳȑ(Poverty Monitoring Master Plan)⏋2002 ॷ 7 ȏ2000/01 ॷԃܕࢃᠭീȑTanzania 2002aɫȡʳ⏏ፑȵ߹য়ɲకፑɫȡɤɛɭɌɩʢ⏋ᨆȴʰେɌɦȿʰʶɛɭয়᠍కঌȵઢɍɩȦʳݭغ⏋క ፑɴʱᏼʞઝ๙ɻȴɲʱཝᦡɐʳ⏏ ǵȋɻɍʠɴȍɫᦚʏɛʭȩɴ⏋ࢪஹ֖ɴᰉɤɩȦʳȼɹˏ̶͠ˡᡉܕɻ⏋Ⴖጓয়՟ȴʰ ܕ᭬ᇕɲᬖᇍஹ֖ɹ࿈༑ɭံᑉɫɻȡʱȭɲȴɤɛ⏏ɗʶɫʢ⏋1970 ॷБೢʚɫɻعܕɹႶ ᕶᖬȵȴɤɛɭȦȩᢒˁ؝ȿʳ⏏ɛɭȭɽ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏȵ 1967 ॷɹЦςᒶࡺៜ⏃ȋˏ ͡ͻ˹͑ࡺៜȍ⏆ГᭇɴᦅˁݜᇻɭɌɛЦςᒶܕࢃ2) ɹলˁʠɊɌɩᦅᨆɴࢸോ⏋ ៵ᆹଘ⏋ອ᧑ేˁரњɌʭȩɭɌɛɄɭɻ⏋1970 ॷБɹܕ᭬ᇕɲᬖᇍᅭɫȡʳݜೣᇕᅊ ༎ӱˏ̺ͦͻ̍ˁʞɌʸӴʱɐʳʢɹɫȡɤɛ⏏ɗɹʭȩɲႶᕶਸɻ⏋෯ᦶᠭకፑɹࢷ Ԃˁʢɤɩᏺူɐʳ⏏ɠɲʛɴ⏋1980 ॷБɹˏ̶͠ˡᡉܕʍɹ෯ᦶᠭకፑɹࢷԂɴӴɞɤ ɩ⏋ˏ̶͠ˡᡉܕɹয়ಁɹᐁཕᇕɲҪྡྷɹ܍ȵکʼʶ⏋ȋႶጓɹᬖᇍకፑɹ߉ఞȍˁς܍ ɭɐʳஹ֖үɭȋඨܩ᧨ըȍˁςɐʳˏ̶͠ˡүȵࢪጓɐʳɄɭɭɲɤɛ⏏ᏺᇕɴմ ᓔɹςȵᦲʱ⏋ᐁཕԃᖔɴؖʉ෯ᦶᠭకፑȵࢷԂɇʶʳɄɭɭɲɤɛ⏏Ʉɹ᥊ழɻ⏋1970 ॷБɴΥγˁᰟᯅɌɛжᬖᇍᠶ⏋ਃࣚᠶ⏋ɐɲʼɠᬖᇍΫܕɹᐁཕҪྡྷɹ܍ˁμਕᡉܕɴ ʭʳٞᦇᡉܕɹرᇕɲؚߥᬠѥɴິʠʳჿᠶᇕ࿈༑ɴࢪɐʳӴᦽܕүɹॎȷᦐɌɭʢៗᨾɌ ȩʳ⏏ ǵɇɩ⏋1980 ॷБȴʰɹ෯ᦶᠭకፑɻ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏˁɻɍʠɭɐʳధɹˏ̶͠ˡᡉܕ⏋ μᎦᡉܕ⏋ɗɌɩˏ˻ˏᡉܕɴȲȦɩ⏋ฌྈᇕɲకፑങᏼʛˁʓʖೃɐʳɄɭɲȼᅙΥᇕ ɴࡸేɇʶɛ⏏ȋɗʶəʶɹܕɴ႕Иȵȡʸȩȵɲȴʸȩȵ⏋ߴɲѹˁ֓ȭɇȭɐʶ ɽ⏋෯ᦶᠭ̮̒˭ͻ˻ɻɐʏɩɹܕɴࢪɐʳᮾԠሎɭɌɩ᧟ᅎɫȷʳ⏋ɭ৳ʰ⏃ৄᅎᓔ⏧ γ᪃˽̶̊̒⏆ɻࡴɌɩȦʳ⏏ჼܩɴɦȦɩɹᏳɲሾᡫɻ⏋ʚɤɛȼਖឹɭɇʶɩȦɲ Ȧȍ˻͚ͻ˻˵̾̒͠ 1996: 145⏏3) ʚɛ⏋γ᪃ɹΫᏩտᐵԏ̍ͻ̶˛˱̨͊˽̜ɫȡɤ ɛᐁཕᓔ˽̘ˑ˫̒̓͠ɻ⏋ȋIMF ɻ˪͞˓ˏͲ̜ܕˁکɐʳմɹฌྈᇕɲଝᐚȷɭɌɩ⏋ ʚɑݬٚೆɹᗳዣˁсଁɐʳ⏏ࡸ᭬ɹکɻ⏋ɗɹݬٚೆʦரៜɹ౩ʰȴɲᠡʱˁឿɦȿ⏋ѹ ˁ֓ȭʳɛʠɫɌȴɲȦ⏏ᗳዣɻࡸᣒᇕɴࡴ݀యೆɫ⏋ȡʳܕɹݬٚೆȴʰҏʱɩȷɛయ ጟȵաɹܕɹݬٚೆɴɦȴȦʚʼɇʶɩȦʳȍ˽̘ˑ˫̒̓͠ 2002: 79ɭ⏋៨ɌɩȦʳ⏏Ɍ ȴɌɲȵʰ⏋ᕶܕɹϟˁਖɑɌʢᓒૅɓɑ⏋ᅙΥᇕɲᐁཕఒᯊ൜ɭɌɩେɌɦȿʰʶɛ෯ᦶ ᠭకፑˁ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏˁɻɍʠɭɐʳˏ̶͠ˡᡉܕȵ୕وɐʳɄɭɻࢅ౫ɫɻɲȴɤɛ⏏γ 2) ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹЦςᒶɻ⏋͇͡˪˽ͤͻ̢ͲςᒶɫɻɲȦ⏏ˏ̶͠ˡعܩɹႶጓ֪ɹ୭ࢷᓔȵர ڟɌɛ⏋ˏ̶͠ˡɹШᐏˁᩂ˃ɍʭȩɭɐʳˏ̶͠ˡЦςᒶɹΥዛɫȡʱ⏋˗˻͇͑ͻЦςᒶ (Ujamaa Socialism) ɭዌɇʶɩȦʳ⏏ 3) ɄɹయጟɴɦɧȦɩ⏋˻͚ͻ˻ʰɻ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹȡʳకঌᲞࡲɹγ᪃ɹҾિɇɴᬠɐʳᦚ૭ˁৄᅎɌɩȦʳ⏏ γ᪃ɹȋࢭᬐࢃȍɻ৳ɹؾӎɴ⏋ȋʼʶʼʶɻ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɫлˁɐʏȷȴ⏋ኽɴɻʼȴɤɩȦʳ⏏ʢɠʸ˃Ʉʶ ʚɫکɌɛɄɭɻΥʢɲȦ⏏ᦏȼکɹϜࡴɞȵ⏋ሾʳਖឹɹȡʳɄɭɐʏɩˁʉɹɴמՕɲೝᬚྡྷܧ ɐʳɦʢʱɫȡʳ⏏ȲɗʰȼϠᦼᬚʢȡʶɽמՕɞʸȩȍɭɤɛɭȦȩ˻͚ͻ˻˵̾̒͠ 1996: 145⏏
᪃IMF ɭɹաɻ⏋Јɹܕ᭬ลᬠȴʰɹஹ֖ʦϠܕᬚஹ֖ˁʢࡸᣒᇕɴుਥɐʳɄɭˁઝ٢ ɌɩȦɛȴʰɫȡʳ⏏ ǵ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɴȲȦɩɻᏟоು଼ˁᐁɲȵʰ 10 ॷГΫɴʼɛɤɩ෯ᦶᠭకፑȵࡸేɇʶɩ ȷɛȵǸɗɹଁഗɻਖɑɌʢᖾɌȼɻɲȦ⏏̊Ͳ˸̢ˏᐁཕɴᦶ᠄ɹཉȦ̲̒˫˽̘Ͳɭ̋ ̢˛̅͡Ͳɻ⏋୭ฌɭɌɩ 1 Ϻȡɛʱɹଘଁᬏრɹᬏೝ̜ͤͲ̝ˁᅎȦ⏋1961 ॷɹႶጓ4) ȴ ʰ 1967 ॷɹЦςᒶࡺៜʚɫɻॷრ 2.0⎾⏋1968 ॷȴʰ 1978 ॷʚɫɹลГմɹಁೝɻ 0.7⎾⏋ 1979 ॷȴʰ 1985 ॷʚɫɹลɹಁೝɻ ⏎1.5⎾⏋1986 ॷГᭇɹఒᯊೝɻ 1999 ॷʚɫɫ 0.6⎾ ɭ፤ՏɌ⏋ȋ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹ 1 ϺȡɛʱଘɹЭʃɻᯃ।ɴᑃિɫȡʳɭᐄᠶɓɊʳˁȭɲȦȍ⏋ ȋჼܧɹ 1 Ϻȡɛʱଘɻ⏋30 ॷմɹˏ͡ͻ˹͑ࡺៜಁʭʱʼɑȴɴ 6⎾ʓɰᲞȦɴɐȹɲȦȍ Bigsten and Danielson 2001: 22ɭ⏋෯ᦶᠭೝˁᐁɛ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏᐁཕɹҪྡྷʉʱˁᏚৗɌɩ
Ȧʳ⏏ɗʢɗʢ⏋෯ᦶᠭకፑɹᔘಕɴȡɤɛᐁཕɹȋృإԎ༐ˏ̺ͦͻ̍ɻΥɫɻȏక ঌɹ߉ఞȑᠶˁࣙᬖɌɲȵʰ⏋Јɫɻؾɍకঌɴᔨȴɦغჿᇕɴఒᯊˁࡸేɐʳకঌˁ ࡴɐʳɭȦȩᕶैሺሄɴ᭒ɤɛȍᐒଘ 1997: 224ɹɫȡʱ⏋ஹ֖ܕకঌɴకঌลᔨɹᑘࢸ ɭȦȩᕶैఒᯊˁ֟რᇕɴࡸేɐʳɄɭˁܦᇕɴᦗʳɄɭɫ⏋য়᠍ܕకঌɹςкਸˁᘿɌȼ ۅ߉ɇɓɩɌʚɤɛɹɫɻɲȴʸȩȴ⏏ ǵჼܧɹᢩܐձཝకፑɻ⏋ᨆɴʭɤɩᩍȵໆࡴɇʶɛᬖᇍᅭɭȦȩဣɫ⏋෯ᦶᠭకፑ ˁᤑ឴ɐʳʢɹɫȡʳ⏏ᢩܐձཝకፑɹݭغ⏋Гάɹʭȩɴكɧȿʰʶɩȷɛ⏏γᅠ᪃ȵ 1990 ॷɹȏγᅠᬖᇍݬٚȑɫᢩܐکᰍˁ̴̜̒˪ɭɌɩʱΫɁ⏋ܕᦹᬖᇍᅙ (UNDP) ȵؾ ॷʭʱϺᬚᬖᇍ୭ฌɴݜɧȼݬٚೆˁɌɻɍʠɛ⏏ɗɌɩ⏋1996 ॷɴɻ OECD ᬖᇍஹ֖ ࠇڊЦ (DAC) ȵȏ21 γᏛɴكȿɩŅᬖᇍתˁᦲɍɛᢨȑɹɲȴɫȋ2015 ॷʚɫɴෑጩɲ ᢩܐɹʢɭɫᅊ༎ɌɩȦʳϺǾɹւغˁץՕɴձཝɐʳɄɭȍˁᩂឹɲ୭ฌɭɌɩர൜ᐒ ଘ 1998: 3Ɍ⏋ᢩܐکᰍɴࢪɐʳΥᦹɹܩܯɌȵɲɇʶɩȷɛ⏏ؾॷɴ⏋͜͠Ͳ˵̜͊̒ɫ ᢩɌȦΫܕʍɹᦠ֓ᇕɲӁ֭ձཝᒞȵغઝɇʶ⏋γᅠ᪃IMF ɹॷ๖תᡴɫᩂӁ֭ᢩܐ ܕ⏃Heavily Indebted Poor Country⏏ᅭዌ HIPC⏆ɹӁ֭ఛཕᒞɫȡʳ HIPC ˓̢˹ˏ̘ˑʹȵ ମ᠗ɇʶɛ⏏ᢩܐձཝکᰍɭࢪӁ֭ఛཕکᰍȵᐄغɇʶɛɹɫȡʳ⏏1999 ॷɹ˭͡Ͳ˵ ̜͊̒ɫɻӁ֭ఛཕፑɹୟ߂ɭԍкȵغઝɇʶ⏋Ʉɹୟ߂ HIPC ˓̢˹ˏ̘ˑʹɴʭʳࢪ Ӂ֭ఛཕɹ᧟ൔܕɴɲʳɛʠɴɻয়᠍ܕȵȏᢩܐձཝᅭೆȑˁፑࡴɐʳɄɭȵؾॷɹγ᪃ IMF ɹغؾᬖᇍࠇڊЦɫᒶ֭ɧȿʰʶɛߡ 2000: 335, 357; ܕ᭬תϟܕ᭬תᐵغ ѹଘ 2001: 1-2⏏ɐɲʼɠ⏋Ӂ֭ఛཕɇʰɴɻృɛɲࢪஹ֖ˁʳɛʠɴɻ⏋ܕࢃᬖᇍɹμ ਕᠩᰍˁᢩܐձཝɴࡴʠ⏋ɗɹμᇕɲకፑయೆȏᢩܐձཝᅭೆȑˁፑࡴɌɩγ᪃IMF ɴ 4) ჼܧɹ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏᦹغԊٮܕɻ⏋1961 ॷɴᗔѵ៧ᐏ᯿ȴʰႶጓɌɛ̊Ͳˤ̢ͻˡ⏃ˏ̶͠ˡ߂᭜Ԓɴȡʳೣ ܤᨆՕ⏆ɭ 1963 ॷɴᗔѳᡸ᯿ȴʰႶጓɌɛ˸Ͳ˻̫͡⏃˓Ͳ̝ΫɴȡʳऄऴᨆՕ⏆ȵ 1964 ॷɴغ᧷Ɍɩଁ ጓɌɛ⏏ೣయɫៜؖɌɛ 1961 ॷɹႶጓɭɻ⏋̊Ͳˤ̢ͻˡɹႶጓˁ୭ɌɩȦʳ⏏
ମ᠗ɇʶʳɄɭȵմரИɭɲɤɩȦʳɹɫȡʳ⏏5) ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɻ⏋Ʉɹʭȩɲܕ᭬Цɹᇺ ែάɫᢩܐձཝకፑˁࢷԂɌɩȦʳӴᦽɹܕɹ 1 ɦɫȡʳ⏏ܕࢃϜ፤ɹȩɠᬖᇍϜ፤ɹʛɲ ʰɑᐁ।Ϝ፤ɹΥᨆʚɫࢪஹ֖ɴћࡔɐʳʭȩɴɲɤɩȦʳ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏ6) ɴɭɤɩ⏋HIPC ɴ ୭ࡴɇʶʳɄɭɴʭɤɩౙഀɹᢦӁȵᥐཝɇʶ⏋ʚɛృɛɲஹ֖ᣂᩆˁʰʶʳȴوȴɻ⏋ ༎کᰍɫȡʳ⏏ɄɹʭȩɲႥάɫ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏࡲӎࣝɴɭɤɩɹڵɹ᧧ିɻ⏋ஹ֖ᡉܕᡉ ลᬠȵغઝɌʦɐȦዛǾɹᢩܐձཝకፑయೆˁсଁɐʳɄɭɫȡʳ⏏ࢪԇᇕӁ֭ఛཕɭୃȷ غʼɓɴɇʶɛᢩܐձཝకፑɴȲȦɩ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏȵႶᕶᖬˁଠɠՏɐςкਸˁᇍஸɫȷʳо ܩɻȴɲʱႷȦ⏏ȋჼకณȵсଁɌɛȏ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏ 2025 ॷᬖᇍᇿฌȑɴȲȦɩ⏋కፑፑࡴɭࡸ ేɴȲȿʳᕶѵɻ⏋ςкਸɹʢᩂឹɲឹᏬɫȡʳɭᠭɇʶɩȦʳȍɴʢȴȴʼʰɑ⏋ȋ̊ Ͳ˸̢ˏɹஹ֖ћࡔɻȡʚʱɴʢ߂ɫ⏋ᕶೃᅊʦ୫ᐚᇕᬖᇍɭȦȩᇿฌɭθጓɌȭɲȦȍ Wangwe and van Arkadie 2000: 107ɭ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏϺᐁཕᓔͩͲ˫˗˙ɭႶጓГഀ̊Ͳ˸
̢ˏᐁཕˁឿᐚȿɩȷɛʹˎͲˏˡ̚ˑͻɻჼɹᢩܐձཝకፑɹሺሄˁ୭ɌɩȦʳ⏏
2.ȁଽॐ࿒ດ̴͉̞̭ͅ
ǵ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᢩܐձཝకፑˁʠȽʳፀ 2 ɹکᰍဣɻ⏋ߏߴɲɄɭɹʭȩɴਲ਼ʼʶʳɫȡʸȩ ȵ⏋ᇿฌᕶкɹಸɇɫȡʳ⏏̊Ͳ˸̢ˏకঌɻႶጓয়՟ɹȏ3 ͶॷЦᐁཕᬖᇍᅙȑГഀ⏋ ɭȩɩȦ᧒ଁȵܐᮑɭਲ਼ʼʶʳᅙᇿฌˁࡴɌɦɧȿɩȷɛ⏏ܕɴ߀ˁ୫ɛɓʳɭȦȩઝ ܒɻჿៗɫȷʳȵ⏋ᅙፑࡴಁɴԳᯁɴՠుɐʶɽ᧒ଁܐᮑɫȡʳɄɭɻకঌয়࣌ᓔʢמՕମ ሾɌɩȦɛʢɹɭਲ਼ʼʶʳ⏏ɗɹʭȩɲ߀ᇕɲధғᇿฌɫȡʳɛʠɴ⏋ᅙᏺϛಁɴᇿฌȵ ᧒ଁɇʶɲȴɤɛ܍ˁ؏ࢌɴᏄീɐʳɄɭʢɲȼ⏋ృɛɲЦᐁཕᬖᇍᅙɴመଝɐʳɄɭ ȵᑵʱᦐɇʶɩȷɛ⏏ᢩܐձཝకፑɹсଁɴȡɛɤɩʢ⏋Ʉʶʚɫɹܕࢃᬖᇍᅙɹсଁᩍ ȵೣᇕɴఒʠʰʶɛɭȦȩᢒɻ؝ȿɲȦ⏏ɌȴɌɲȵʰ⏋ᢩܐձཝకፑɹݭغɴɻ⏋ధғ ᇿฌȵ᧒ଁɇʶɦɦȡʳɄɭˁኍɓɲȦȴȹʱ⏋HIPC ˓̢˹ˏ̘ˑʹɹ᧟ൔܕȴʰɻɑɇʶ ȴɷɲȦ⏏ɗɹɛʠ⏋Ʉɹʭȩɲ᧒ଁܐᮑɲᇿฌғɴكȿɩ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏకঌɴʭʳధࡓȡʼ 5) HIPC ˓̢˹ˏ̘ˑʹɴʭʳӁ֭ఛཕ⏃HIPC ˽˥ͻ͌⏆ɹ᧟ᅎˁ؝ȿɛܕɴᠩɓʰʶɛకፑങᏼʛȵᢩܐձཝ ᅭೆɫȡʳȵ⏋ȋɄʶɻ HIPC ˽˥ͻ͌᧟ᅎܕɹʛɲʰɑ⏋ፀϠγᅠ᪃⏃ܕ᭬ᬖᇍתЦ⏆ȴʰᜨᣂˁ؝ȿʭ ȩɭɐʳɐʏɩɹܕɴឹິɇʶʳȍɭȦȩॶᩃ 2002: 108⏏ॶᩃɻ HIPC ˽˥ͻ͌ɴࢪɌɩ⏋ȋˏ̶͠ˡɴȲ ȿʳᏲዩӁ֭کᰍɹೣᣒɻ⏋Ŕ⏃μᅭ⏆Ŕᦐཕᐓࢪᰎɴȡʳɹɫɻɲȼ⏋ᦐཕᔨɹቂࢸɇɴȡʳ⏏Ɍɛȵɤ ɩˏ̶͠ˡکᰍɻ⏋HIPC ˽˥ͻ͌ɴʭɤɩɻៗໆɇʶɲȦ⏏ˏ̶͠ˡᐁཕȵଁᬏɌɲȿʶɽɲʰɲȦȍॶᩃ 2002: 109ɭ⏋وࡴᇕɲឿៗˁኍɌɩȦʳ⏏ 6) 2000/01 ॷໆ፤ɫʛʳɭ⏋Ԃᐵᰎɻ TShs. 929,625 ᇑΨ⏃TShs.⏮̊Ͳ˸̢ˏ˹͠Ͳ˫⏆ɫȡʱ⏋Υ Տᐵᰎɻ TShs. 1,307,214 ᇑΨ⏃ȩɠᐁ।ఌՏ TShs. 1,020,961 ᇑΨ⏋ᬖᇍఌՏ TShs. 286,253 ᇑΨ⏆ɫȡʱ⏋TShs. 377,589 ᇑΨɹᣧࡓɭɲɤɩȦʳ⏏ɗɹជݿɻ⏋ࢪᠭ᧒ᰎ TShs. 380,575 ᇑΨɭܕԒᠭ᧒ᰎ TShs. 20,426 ᇑΨɫ ɲɇʶɛ⏃ᠭ᧒ᰎɻ TShs. 23,412 ᇑΨրɫȡɤɛ⏆⏏ࢪᠭ᧒ᰎɹԒ៱ɻ⏋ᣝήᰎ TShs. 293,436 ᇑΨ⏋ҏᰎ TShs. 167,487 ᇑΨ⏋Ӥ᧰ᰎ TShs. 80,348 ᇑΨɫȡɤɛ Tanzania 2002b: 66⏏ࢪᣝήᰎɞȿɫʢ⏋ᬖᇍఌՏᰎˁ Ϋ܌ɤɩȦʳႥɫȡʳ⏏ɓȵɲɇʶɩȦʳɹɫɻɲȦȴɭᆄʼɓʳဣȵȡʳ⏏ᢩܐکᰍɹɲȴɫʢμɲکᰍɭʛɲɇ ʶɩȦʳଘᢩܐ (income poverty)7) ɹձཝɴᬠʼʳ 2 ɦɹϟёˁЂɌɛȦ⏏ɲȲ⏋ؾܕɹଘ ᢩܐɻయೆɴʭɤɩᰩȦ᧓Ȧȵȡʳʢɹɹ 2 ຍ᭥ɫࡴᒶɇʶɩȦʳ⏏жᭉɹെˁௌʳɛ ʠɴਖឹɲᰩᏒˁԂଝɫȷʳଘఌՏອྈ⏃ᰩᏒᢩܐᐻ⏆ˁά܌ʳϺؤȵȋᰩᏒᢩܐȍ⏃food poverty⏏ȡʳȦɻȋෑᢩȍabject poverty ɭʢᝠ៨ɇʶʳɄɭʢȡʳ⏆ɫȡʱ⏋ɗɹᰎɴж ᭉɹᅊ༎ˁۊʞɛʠɴਖឹɲᢧ˵ͻ̲˽ʍɹఌՏᰎˁ֓ȭɛଘఌՏອྈ⏃ݜೣᇕᅊ༎ᢩ ܐᐻ⏆ˁά܌ʳϺؤȵȋݜೣᇕᅊ༎ӱອྈೡྃɹᢩܐȍ⏃basic needs poverty⏏Гά⏋ȋݜೣᇕ ᅊ༎ᢩܐȍɭ៨ɐ⏆ɫȡʳ Tanzania 1998: 4-5; Tanzania 2002a: 78⏏
ǵɇɩፀ 1 ɹϟёɻ⏋ᢩܐץཝˁ᧒ଁɐʳಁೝɹᑵʱάɁɫȡʳ⏏̊Ͳ˸̢ˏకঌɻ⏋1995 ॷɴ˱̿Ͳ̩ͻ˰ͲɫᬖҼɇʶɛܕᦹςҼɹγᅠЦᬖᇍ˵̜͊̒ɴؒ֓Ɍ⏋ɗɄɫȋعܕɹ ϟɴਝɍɩᐓࢪᇕᢩܐˁྙɐʳᇿฌೝᭉˁࡴɐʳȍ United Nations 2000: Ch.2ʭȩິʠ ʰʶɛɄɭˁȩȿ⏋2010 ॷʚɫɴȋෑᢩࣝȍˁץཝɌ⏋2025 ॷʚɫɴྙɐʳɄɭˁ⏋1998 ॷɹకঌయೆȏܕࢃᢩܐྙᅭȑɴధғᇿฌɭɌɩ౩៨Ɍɛ Tanzania 1998: vi⏏Ʉʶɴࢪ Ɍɩ⏋2000 ॷ 7 ɹȏ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɴȲȿʳᢩܐ̾ͻ˽͞˓Ͳɹఒ៝ȑɴȲȦɩ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏక ঌᐏ࣌ɻ⏋1991/92 ॷԃܕࢃᠭീɭ 1990 ॷБɴʼʶɛعዛɹᠭീᐄഗɴݜɧȷ⏋ȋݜೣ ᇕᅊ༎ᢩܐȍϺؤɻ 1991/92 ॷɹ 48.4⎾ȴʰ 2000 ॷɴɻ 56.0⎾ɴވ߂ɌɩȲʱ⏋ᢩܐˁץཝ ɇɓʳɛʠɴɻȋЁ 15 ॷᬚॷრ 9.7⎾ɹᐁཕଁᬏȵਖឹɫȡʳ⏏Ʉʶɻ᧒ଁɇʶɗȩɴɲ Ȧ⏏ᢩܐձཝɹᇿฌ᧒ଁɹɛʠɴɻ⏋ɲ˃ʰȴɹଘԗᨗՕɹፑȵਖឹɫȡʸȩȍ Tanzania 2000b: 42ɭՕഓɌɩȦʳ⏏ؾೆɫៜؖɇʶɛȋЁ 15 ॷᬚȍɭɻ 2015 ॷʚɫˁ୭ɌɩȲʱ⏋ ᢩܐץཝɹೝᭉȵȦɦɹʚɴȴ 2010 ॷȴʰ 2015 ॷɴᑵʱάɁʰʶɩȦʳɄɭɴɲʳ⏏2015 ॷ ʚɫɴᢩܐˁץཝɐʳɭȦȩᇿฌɻ⏋մᦚɹʭȩɴ OECD ɴʭɤɩ 1996 ॷɴᝠ౩ɇʶɩȦɛ ధғɫȡʳ⏏̊Ͳ˸̢ˏకঌɻɗʶʭʱʢઝ๙ᇕɫȡɤɛ 2010 ॷɭȦȩ᧒ଁಁೝˁ 2015 ॷʚ ɫᑵʱάɁɛɹɫȡʳ⏏ɛɞɌ⏋ႶጓГഀ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɻॷრ 10⎾ᦏȦᐁཕଁᬏრˁ᧒ଁɌɛ ɄɭȵɲȦɄɭȴʰ⏋ᢩܐࣝˁץཝɇɓʳɛʠɴɻೝᭉযᬏɞȿɫɻέמՕɫ⏋Პଘࣝȵ࠶ ȩଘԗᨗՕʢʦʞɲɌɭՠుɓɊʳˁȭɲȴɤɛɹɫȡʳ⏏ ǵፀ 2 ɹϟёɻ⏋ᢩܐϺؤປრɹܦᑘɫȡʳ⏏ܕ᭬ᇕɲᢩܐձཝ˥̶͑̒̍ͤͻ̀ɫȡ ʳȋ1 1 ̝͡ȍɭȦȩݜྈˁ᧟ᅎɐʶɽ⏋2000 ॷɴ 1 Ϻȡɛʱ GDP ȵ 222 Ꭶ̝͡ Bank of 7) ٞሾɹʭȩɴ⏋1970 ॷБɴரڟɇʶɛᐓࢪᇕᢩܐ⏋ሂࢪᇕᢩܐȵଘ⏃ȡʳȦɻ༥ᢹ⏆ɭȦȩᐁཕᇕүᯆˁᩂ ែɌɩȦɛɹɴࢪɌɩ⏋1990 ॷБГᭇɹᢩܐɹࡴᒶɻ⏋ˏ͇̘͡ˑˏ́ͲɹΥᦹɹᑡɹ৯ᯱˁ؝ȿɩ⏋క ᇕ⏋Цᇕ⏋యᇕឹ܍ˁʢي˃ɫȦʳ⏏ɌȴɌɲȵʰ⏋ᢩܐɹࡴᒶɹୟ߂ɻ⏋ਖɑɌʢࡸ֭ᇕɲ௭сخᔨ ਸˁЫɤɩɻȦɲȦ⏏ɛɭȭɽܕᦹᬖᇍᅙɹϺᬚᬖᇍ୭ฌɻ⏋௭сخᔨਸˁᲞʠʳ֗ˁɌɛᐄഗɭɌɩ́ ͲɹᢩܐࡴᒶˁቂࢸɌɛɭᯃᮑɇʶɩȦʳ⏏̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹకፑయೆɴȲȦɩʢ⏋༥ᢹອྈГɫɻఠᔒ⏋ѳ ҫ⏋ᐌອፈɹࡴᩄᇕѝ୭ฌˁࡴɌʦɐȦՕᩃɴᭉࡴɇʶɩȲʱ⏋ʚɛࡸ᭬ɹᢩܐɹཀྵࡴɴȲȦɩɻςɭɌ ɩଘᢩܐɹʛȵࢪᢒɭɇʶɩȦʳ⏏
Tanzania 2001: 96ɫȡɤɛ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɫɻ⏋ʓɭ˃ɰɹܕȵࢹɲȼɭʢᐁཕᯆɫʛɩᢩܐ ࣝɴՕᰖɇʶʳɄɭɴɲʳ⏏8) ɌȴɌ⏋ؾܕɹଘᢩܐɴ᠍য়ɐʳϺؤɻ⏋ɻʳȴɴࢹɲȼឿ ዩʢʰʶɩȦʳ⏏ ǵȏ2000/01 ॷԃܕࢃᠭീȑɫᅎɌɛଘᢩܐࣝɹݜྈɻГάɹʭȩɫȡʳ⏏ʚɑ⏋ؾࢃ ᠭീɹࢪᢒɭɲɤɛ 22,178 γय़ɹȩɠଁϺᅖࡎழ፤ȡɛʱɫ༥ᢹఌՏອྈȵжȦάе 50⎾ɹ γय़ɹௌᰩڃ෯ଁˁᮃɌɛ⏏ɦȦɫ⏋ɗɹᰩڃ෯ଁປˁᐣ୫Ɍɲȵʰଁॷᅖࡎȵ 1 ж ᭉਖឹɲௌᩄ 2,200 ˡͦ͠ͻ9) ˁྃɛɐɛʠɴឹɐʳᰩᏒˁᣘԂɐʳݭغɹఌՏᰎˁ⏋᱔এ ᨊ॑̋͡˛˽˵͞ͻ͌॑⏋Јᨊ॑ᨆ⏋ᦅᨆɹ 3 ܩݖɗʶəʶɫ፤ՏɌɩ⏋ɗʶəʶɹܩݖɹ ᰩᏒᢩܐᐻɭɌɛ⏏ɗɌɩ⏋3 ךՕɇʶɛܩݖɗʶəʶɫᰩᢹɴжᭉɹਖᮛڃఌՏᰎˁ֓ȭ ɩݜೣᇕᅊ༎ᢩܐᐻɭࡴʠɛ⏏ԃܕॶܯɐʶɽ⏋ᰩᏒᢩܐᐻɻᰎ⏃28 ழ፤⏆ TShs. 5,295 ⏃ ᰎ TShs. 5,295 ɻ⏋2001 ॷ 6 ͤͻ̜ɫழ፤ɐʶɽ 1 ȡɛʱ 0.213 Ꭶ̝͡ɭɲʳ⏆ɫȡʱ⏋ݜ ೣᇕᅊ༎ᢩܐᐻɻᰎ TShs. 7,253⏃ؾ 0.292 Ꭶ̝͡⏆ɫȡɤɛ Tanzania 2002a: 78⏏10) ܕ᭬ᇕɲ ݜྈɫȡʳȋ1 1 ̝͡ȍɭɻաɴعܕȵႶᕶɹᢩܐᐻˁࡴɐʳɄɭȵࡴɇʶɩɻȦʳ ȵ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᢩܐᐻɻȴɲʱжȦɭៜʼɊʳˁȭɲȦ⏏11) ǵɇʰɴ⏋ᢩܐϺؤປრɹܦᑘȵܒʰʶʳ⏏2000 ॷ 10 ɴᇍᝠɇʶɛȏᢩܐձཝᅭೆȑ ɫɻ⏋ዛǾɹȴʰՠుɐʶɽ 2000 ॷɴɻᢩܐϺؤɻӦɴ 50⎾ˁᣳȭɩȦʳɭɌɲȵʰ ʢ⏋ȏ1991/92 ॷԃܕࢃᠭീȑɹ 48⎾ɹγय़ȵݜೣᇕᅊ༎ᢩܐࣝ⏋ʚɛ 27⎾ɹγय़ɻᰩᏒᢩ ܐࣝɫȡʳɭȦȩధғˁᅎɌɩ⏋ɗʶɴݜɧȦɩᢩܐձཝɹᇿฌˁࡴɌɩȦʳ Tanzania 2000a: 5-6⏏ɗʶɴࢪɌɩ⏋2002 ॷɴɇʶɛȏ2000/01 ॷԃܕࢃᠭീȑɫɻ⏋ؾࢃᠭീ 8) ೣయɫɻ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹ 2000 ॷɹ 1 Ϻȡɛʱ GDP ɭȋ1 1 ̝͡ȍɭȦȩ˥̶͑̒̍ͤͻ̀ˁᢒਐᇕɴປᥒɌ ɛȵ⏋ࡸ᭬ɴɻᏤɴປᥒɻɫȷɲȦ⏏ȏγᅠᬖᇍݬٚ 2000/2001ȑɴɻȋ1 1 ̝͡ʚɛɻ 2 ̝͡ɹᢩܐɻ⏋˫ ͦͻ̫͡ɲᦽɹ୭ฌɭɌɩɹʛ֟ɫȡʱ⏋ܕͤ̾͡ɹᦽˁѝ⏋ȡʳȦɻܕፑʦܕɹ̺ͦ˫͌͞ᅙɹ ୭ᩍɭɲʳʢɹɫɻɲȦ⏏ܕɗʶəʶɹᢩܐᐻɻعܕɹႥɹμɫɹᢩܐˁઝ٢ɐʳʢɹɫȡʱ⏋ܕ᭬ᇕɲ႒ ѝɹປᥒɴृزɇʶɑ⏋ܕͤ̾͡ɹՕഓɫьᅎɇʶʳʢɹɫȡʳȍγᅠ᪃ 2002: 32ɭ៨ɇʶɩȦʳ⏏ʚɛ⏋ ȋ1 1 ̝͡ȍɭȦȩధғɻ⏋γᅠ᪃ȵ 1999 ॷ 10 ɴృɹฌೣ̚ͻ̊ɭѝൔݬˁьȦ⏋1993 ॷɹγᅠ ᪃ᣘᢷॶѝ (PPP) ɴழ፤Ɍɛжଘܕ 10 Ͷܕɹμ߈ғɫȡʱ⏋ተɴɻ 1993 ॷ PPP ɴழ፤Ɍɩ 1 1.08 ̝͡ɫȡʳγᅠ᪃ 2002: 31-32⏏Ʉɹ፤ɴਃȭɽ⏋1999 ॷɴؿᇿѝൔᝠኍɫ 1 Ϻȡɛʱ GNP ȵ 240 Ꭶ̝͡ɫȡɤɛ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹధғɻ⏋1993 ॷ PPP ᝠኍɫ 478 Ꭶ̝͡ɫȡʱ⏋ᠭീɇʶɛ 206 Ͷܕμ 205 еɫ ȡɤɛ⏏ɌȴɌɲȵʰ⏋ȋ1 1 ̝͡ГάɹϺؤȍɴɦȦɩɻ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹ 19.9⎾⏃1993 ॷᠭീ⏆ɭȦȩధғ ɻ⏋˭̢ˏ⏃1 1 ̝͡ГάɹϺؤ 26.5⎾̆1994 ॷᠭീ⏏PPP ᝠኍ 1 Ϻȡɛʱ GNP 975 Ꭶ̝͡⏏Гάؾɍ⏆⏋˗ ˤͲ̋⏃36.7⎾̆1992 ॷᠭീ⏏1,136 Ꭶ̝͡⏆⏋̠˓˻˙͠ˏ⏃70.2⎾̆1997 ॷᠭീ⏏744 Ꭶ̝͡⏆ፈ⏋ˏ̶͠ˡ ᡉܕɹɲȴɫɻੲȦధғɫɻɲȦγᅠ᪃ 2002: 471-473, 483-485⏏ 9) еɻ˥ͦˡͦ͠ͻȵɌȦɭਲ਼ʼʶʳȵ⏋Ԏ Tanzania 2002a: 78ɴɻˡͦ͠ͻɭ៨ɇʶɩȦʳ⏏Ʉɹʭ ȩɲᅎʢȡʱȩʳɭ⏋ᅪሁయఠஐ⏃ϴᨊ߂߂ᦅድዀᰩڃᅊ႒ዀࢭఓ⏆ɴɅఠኍȦɛɞȦɛ⏏ 10) Ʉɹ፤ɹࢪᢒɭɲɤɛᰩڃɻ 108 ڃᇿɫ⏋Ꮴɴᐵɐʳɭ 5,512 ˡͦ͠ͻ⏃ 9) ˁؒ၇⏏Гά⏋ؾɍ⏆⏋ఌ Տᰎ TShs. 13,226 ɭɲʳ⏏ɄʶɻᰩϟԒࢅɴܩݖेȵȡʳɛʠɫȡʱ⏋2,200 ˡͦ͠ͻௌɴਖឹɲᰩᏒᢩܐᐻ ɻ⏋TShs. 13,226Ì⏃2,200/5,512⏆ɫ፤ՏɇʶɩȦʳ Tanzania 2002a: 138-140⏏ 11) 8) ɫЂɌɛ 1993 ॷ PPP ழ፤Ɍɩʢ⏋1 1 ̝͡ɴ᧒ɌɲȦɭࡴɇʶʳ⏏
ɹଝɫԗ፤ɐʳɭ⏋ȏ1991/92 ॷԃܕࢃᠭീȑɹᢩܐປრɻɗʶəʶ 38.6⎾ɭ 21.6⎾ɴɲ ʳɭɌɩ⏋1990 ॷБ՟ೝɹᢩܐປრȵ߂ȷȼάѹɇʶɛ⏏ɇʰɴ⏋2000/01 ॷɹݜೣᇕᅊ ༎ᢩܐࣝɻԃϺؤɹ 35.7⎾⏋ᰩᏒᢩܐࣝɻ 18.7⎾ɫȡʱ⏋1991/92 ॷɭປʏɩᢩܐɻɓȦɕȦ ดɽȦɫވ߂ɻɌɩȦɲȦɭ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏకঌɻᇍᝠɌɛ Tanzania 2002a: 78-81⏏ȏ1991/92 ॷ ԃܕࢃᠭീȑɴȲȦɩʢȏ2000/01 ॷԃܕࢃᠭീȑɭʓʖؾΥɹݜྈˁᅎȦɩȦʳɻɑɫȡ ʳȵ⏋ɲɕԗ፤ɐʶɽᢩܐປრȵжȼɲʳɹȴɻ⏋౩ʰȴɫɻɲȦ⏏ᢩܐປრɹܦᑘɹᐄഗ ɭɌɩ⏋ӴɴৄᅎɌɛ 2000 ॷ 7 ɹȏ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɴȲȿʳᢩܐ̾ͻ˽͞˓Ͳɹఒ៝ȑɫɻଘ ɹԗᨗՕȵਖឹɫȡʳɭɇʶɩȦɛȵ⏋ȏ2000/01 ॷԃܕࢃᠭീȑȴʰɻ⏋ଘԗᨗՕɻਖឹ ɲȼ⏋ਸ਼ଁᬏɌɛ᱔এᨊ॑̋͡˛˽˵͞ͻ͌॑ɭປʏଁᬏɹᩞȴɤɛᦅᨆɹଁᬏˁѦᦽɐʳ ɄɭɫࢪਝȵخᔨɫȡʳɄɭȵኍڗɇʶɩȦʳ⏏ ǵɄɹʭȩɲధғɹᠧʛ್ȭɴʭɤɩ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᢩܐϺؤɻܦᑘɇʶ⏋ଘԗᨗՕˁʼ ɲȼɭʢ⏋ᦅᬖᇍɹɛʠɹࢪஹ֖ˁވ߂Ɍɩʢʰȭʶɽ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᢩܐکᰍɻᥐཝɐ ʳɭȦȩధࡓغʼɓȵʼʶɩȦʳɹɫɻɲȦɫȡʸȩȴ⏏Ʉʶˁ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏకঌɹɌɛɛ ȴɇɭៗᨾɐʳɄɭʢخᔨɫȡʳ⏏
3.ȁ႖̥̈́͞͞ఆ২ٛ
ǵ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᢩܐձཝకፑɴᬠɐʳፀ 3 ɹکᰍဣɻ⏋ςឹɲឋᇰᓔɫȡʱᩂឹɲգࢀᬠѥᓔ (stakeholder) ɫȡʳʏȷᦅɹԳཁɲؙਝɫȡʳ⏏Ʉɹکᰍɻ⏋ɐɫɴᦚʏɛܕࢃͤ̾͡ɫɹ 2 ɦɹکᰍဣɭʢ၇ਝɌɩȦʳ⏏ ǵЁ܌ɹᢩܐձཝకፑɴȲȦɩɻ⏋ᢩܐɹࡴᒶȵᐁཕᇕүᯆɞȿɫɲȼకЦయᇕү ᯆʚɫيʞʭȩɴୟ߂ɇʶɛɄɭɭȡȦʚɤɩ⏋కፑɹࢪᢒɭɌɩ႕ࡴɹᮃܩݖȵࡴɇ ʶɩȦɲȦ⏏ɐɲʼɠ⏋ܩకɹμˁȩላకঌȵჼܩɴ᧟Ֆɲᢩܐࢪፑˁɗʶəʶᓒ ൜Ɍ⏋ᘺȵೢጩɫɗɹࡸేˁȩɄɭȵ෯ɇʶɩȦʳ⏏ɛɭȭɽ⏋ɐɫɴμ߈కঌɻ՟ ፈఠᔒࣃრˁᲞʠʳɛʠɴఠᔒᢹˁံӤɭɌ⏋عላɫࢸോɹఠࡻɹވˁߣ֜ɌɩȦʳ⏏ ʚɛ⏋ܩՕณకፑɹΥᄩɭɌɩ⏋ᘺɻႶᕶɹᢧకࠇڊЦɭࠇڊЦˁօʳʭȩɴላয় ࣌ɴິʠʰʶɩȦʳ⏏ ǵɄɹʭȩɲΥᦹɹ֪ȷɻ⏋ᦅзɴɭɤɩʚɇɴ 1970 ॷБɹȋᬖᇍɹ៨ૡȍˁৱ৴ɇɓ ʳʢɹɫȡʳ⏏ɐɫɴᦚʏɛʭȩɴ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɴȲȦɩᢩܐձཝȵܕࢃᬖᇍకፑɹμਕᠩᰍ ɭɇʶʳɹɻ⏋ႶጓГഀ 2 ᇿɫȡʳ⏏՟ɻ⏋1967 ॷɹȋˏ͡ͻ˹͑ࡺៜȍГᭇɴᦅˁ ݜᇻɭɌɛႶᕶɹЦςᒶᤉᐻɴᤑʛɞɌɛ 1970 ॷБɫȡɤɛ⏏Ʉɹಁೝɴɻ⏋ോ⏋ອ᧑ ే⏋כᆹేɹரњɭʁȷȴȭɴ⏋ᦅᮃˁʠɊɐ˗˻͇͑ͻ (Kijiji cha Ujamaa) ল ȵ⏋য়՟ɻᦅзɹᕶᇍਸˁࢴᩂɌ⏋ɗɌɩ๖ፀɴըᇕɴɌᦽʠʰʶɛ⏏ᘺɹᕶ ˁᲞʠʳɛʠ⏋ᬿ⏋ᅊᅋ༑ᦲ⏋ᅙᢧక⏋ఠᔒయፈɹ।ࠇڊЦˁᒞɐʳɄɭȵᘺɴິʠʰʶɛ⏏ɗɌɩ⏋1970 ॷБɴ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹ॑ݭكȿᦅᅊᅋɻᰩᏒс႒⏋ ழᩆс႒ɭʢɴ߂ȷȼάᘺɐʳɄɭɭɲɤɛ⏏ ǵ1970 ॷБɹ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᬖᇍకፑ⏋ʚɛᬖᇍకፑɭᦅᅊᅋ֪كɹᬠᦹɴɦȦɩɻዛǾɹ ឿៗȵࡔܧɐʳȵ⏋ݚፆᓔɻ⏋ܩՕณˁѦᦽɐʳʭȩɴʛȭɩࡸɻμ߈కঌɹᐏըˁೢ ጩʚɫȦȷʼɛʰɓʳፑɫȡʱ⏋ɗɹʭȩɲΫȴʰɹᦅఒɴᦅзɻԇᇕᦅᅋ႒༑ ᦲ͡ͻ̜ʍɹᦅᅋ႒ெՏᩄˁᑘࢸɐʳɄɭɫံៜɹୄˁኍɌɛɭȦȩឿɴጓɤɩȦʳ⏏Ʉ ɹʭȩɲឿɻݚፆᓔɹᇍ൜ɫɻɲȼ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɴᬠɌɩӦʶɛ̨͐˫̶͞ˁధȼᅊʛɞ ɌɩȦʳ๘ድᓔɴʭɤɩ⏋ᠶဣˁȭɲȵʰʢؾዛɹឿៗȵɐɫɴኍɇʶɩȦʳ⏏̩ʹ̦ ʹˑ˪ Havnevik 1993ɻ˗˻͇͑ͻకፑೝɹȋΫȴʰɹఒᯊȍɴࢪɌɩ⏋μആᨆ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏ ɹ̶͡ˑ˻ላɹᦅȵᅊᏙɹਸɴਝɍɩᅊˁɌɩࢪɌɛɄɭˁ౩ʰȴɴɌɩ Ȧʳ⏏́̿ͤ Seppälä 1998ɻ⏋ആᨆ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹᦅɴȲȦɩᦅɻᣂ྇ˁᐁཕՕᩃɹ ʛɲʰɑకՕᩃ⏋యՕᩃɴʢԗହᣂɐʳɄɭˁࡸ៷ᇕɴ౩ʰȴɴɌ⏋ᐁཕՕᩃɴᭉɤɛᣂ ೣᙢዩɭȦȩᇍɹ᥊ழˁິʠɩȦʳ⏏ɇʰɴ⏋ܕ᭬ᣂೣςᒶȴʰɹᦡᤉˁተѳɌɩȦʳȋ ɇʶɩȦɲȦࢸᦅࣝȍ (uncaptured peasantry) ɭȦȩ̯̚ͻͲ Hyden 1980ɹ᠗ᡫɻ⏋ჼܧɫ ʢ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹʛɲʰɑˏ̶͠ˡɹᦅድɫৄᅎɇʶʳឿៗɫȡʳ⏏৳ʰɹឿៗˁᦏॷɹ༑ ɴɤɩழៜɐʶɽ⏋ȋភغᇕɲЦᬠѥᣂೣ (social capital) ˁ෯፷ȡʳȦɻ༎ᅎɌɩ⏋ઝɴ དʼɲȦΫȴʰɹᬖᇍɴࢪɌɛȍɭȦȩɄɭɴɲʸȩ⏏ ǵ1970 ॷБɻܕࢃᐏըᐁཕάɫɹᐁཕᬖᇍɫȡʱ⏋ჼܧɹᢩܐձཝకፑɻ॑ݭᐁཕᤉᐻɹ ʢɭɫɹЦᬖᇍɫȡʳɭȦȩሂ᧓ɻ⏋ᦅзɴɭɤɩࡸઢɫȷʳʢɹɫɻɲȼ⏋৳ʰɻჼ ܧɹᢩܐձཝకፑˁ 1970 ॷБɹԗഀɭ᠗ᡫɐʳɫȡʸȩɄɭɻࢅ౫ɴӉɫȷʳ⏏ᦅз ɻᯆˁՖɤɩؙᇍɐʳɄɭɻɲȼ⏋ȲɗʰȼɻᯆਃᕊᔘɭȦȩᅭɴՏʳخᔨਸȵᲞȦ⏏ɛ ɭȭɽ⏋˻˙Ͳ̋ͻɹ៎ဣȴʰߨਸɹᇍៜณˁᩂែɐʳਖឹȵȡʳɄɭ⏋ςᇕȴɦςкᇕɲ ᬖᇍɹɛʠɴзؒ֓݀ɫᬖᇍဤȵʼʶɷɽɲʰɲȦፈɹᓒȭɻȴɲʱಔؖɌɩȦʳʭ ȩɴʢឿ؝ȿʰʶʳȵ⏋ɗɹʭȩɲᇍɻԒᯆɇʶɩȦʳɭɻਲ਼ȭɑ⏋҅ա̺ͦ˻˙˪̜ɹ ᅙೝᬚᏺϛˁʢɤɩ⏋ᮖత᮫༥ɌȴɷɲȦ⏏12) ȋΫȴʰȍɹ⏋ɗɌɩȋᨆȴʰȍɹըɴࢪ Ɍɩ⏋ᦅзɻɌɛɛȴɴࢪਝɌɩȦʳʭȩɴਲ਼ȭʳ⏏ ǵɄɹʭȩɲୄɻ⏋ᘺకঌɴࢪɌɩʢكȿʰʶȩʳ⏏ɲɕɲʰ⏋ᘺɻకеɭȦȩГ ΫɹЦᐁཕᇕลᔨˁȦʚɞ୫ɠɩȦɲȦɛʠɫȡʳ⏏ჼܧɹᘺɻ⏋1970 ॷБɹ˗˻͑ ͇ͻకፑೝɴ⏋250 γय़ГΫɫ෯ଁɐʳʭȩకঌȴʰ୭ኍɇʶɩ⏋ɗʶʚɫɹధȵغкɌ ɩృɛɴօɇʶɛʢɹɫȡʳɄɭȵȦ⏏ʢɠʸ˃ඨܩೝʦႶጓ՟ೝɹᘺʢᕶးɭɻ 12) ȋؒ֓݀ᬖᇍɭɻ⏋Ȧȴɴࢪᢒᓔˁؒ֓ɇɓʳȴȵᡴᠶɹμਕɴȡʳʏȷɫɲȼ⏋ȦȴɴᨆᓔȵЈᓔɹЦɴ ᬠήɐʳɹȴȵᡴᠶɹμਕɴȡʳʏȷȍɭȦȩиᚹɹឿៗиᚹ 2003: 30ɻӃᓵɴғɐʳ⏏
ȦȦȵɛȦȵ⏋1970 ॷБɴօɇʶɛᘺɻՀᑘਸɴϋɌȦ⏏ɻ⏋ᘺకঌˁೢጩɹ కᏼᑩ13) ɭ᠗ᡫɌɩȲʱ⏋ᕶՕɛɠɹઝឿБᝠɫȡʳɭȦȩ᠗ᡫɻᚚȦ⏏
ǵᘺɹՀᑘਸȵ๕߭ɌɩȦʳϟёɭɌɩ⏋2 ɦɹࢸៀฐဌྰɹ˭ͻ˽˽̊̚ˑͻˁ୲Ɂ ɩȲȷɛȦ⏏Ȧɑʶʢ⏋ݜೣᇕɴγय़ȵ।ᇕɲᐁཕ༎֪ɹеɭɲɤɩȦʳܩݖɫȡʳ ȵ⏋γय़ˁᣳȭɛᮃᇕۊဤˁਖឹɭɐʳဌྰᦅʢࣙᬖɌɩȲʱ⏋Ʉɹʭȩɲᅊᅋ༎֪ ɴȲȦɩᘺɹ৯ɻᚚȦ⏏̝˓̓ɹஹ֖ลᬠɫȡʳ GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technishe Zusammenarbeit) ȵᨆ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹ˗˵Ͳ̫͞ݳɫ 20 ॷɴʼɛɤɩࡸేɌɛඨകˁμਕɭ ɐʳᦅᬖᇍ̺ͦ˻˙˪̜ɹϟёɫɻ⏋ᘺకঌɭȦȩకᏼᑩˁ༎ᅎɐʳɄɭɻɫȷɑ⏋ᐄ ࣌ɹɭɄʸؾΥɹࢸອᏙɴဌྰᅊ༎ᅎອˁћࡔɌɩȦʳᮃˁеɭɌɛ༎֪ȵЊȦɛɭ Ȧȩ⏏ɄɹʭȩɲᮃɻᘺԒɴȦȼɦʢȡʱ⏋ᘺకঌɫɻɲȼ⏋Ʉɹܧഀᏼᑩȵ।ᇕɲ ༎֪ɹݜᇻɭɲɤɩȦɛ Johansson 2001: 75-79⏏ݚፆᓔȵᠭീࢪᢒɭɌɩȦʳᨆ̊Ͳ˸̢ ˏ⏋̮ͤᵴɹϗ࡚ဌྰсɹອգᏼᑩɹϟёɫʢ⏋ဌྰخᔨɲܘݭɹȡʳܩךɹзȵႶᕶ ɴᬚᨆɹ᭰ɹؾዛɹອգᏼᑩɭᦹொɌɲȵʰ⏋θɹᘺకɹЂԂɲɌɴອգીˁࡸ ᤋɌɩȦɛᩃ 1999; 2000⏏14) ǵՀᑘਸȵϋɌȦᘺకঌɹᇍ൜ɴɲʳᬖᇍ̺ͦ˻˙˪̜ɴࢪɌɩ⏋ɻᕶՕɛɠɹᅙɫ ȡʳɭȦȩઝᡫȵᚚȼ⏋ȡȼʚɫʢȋΫȴʰȍɹᬖᇍɫȡʳɭ᠗ᡫɌȴɷɲȦ⏏ɗɄɴɻ⏋ሎ ɹзؒ֓ʢ⏋ܩݖɹςкਸʢឿȦɞɌɴȼȦ⏏Ʉʶʚɫࡲࢴקɹᰟ࿈ȵȴɤɛ̊Ͳ˸̢ ˏɴȲȦɩ⏋కзؘɹઝᡫఒᯊɻȡʚʱɲɇʶɩȲʰɑ⏋зؒ֓݀ɹᢩܐձཝకፑ ʢΫઝά᧒িɴࣙᬖɇʶʭȩɭɌɩȦʳ⏏ܩՕณకፑɹʢɭɫ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏμ߈కঌɻላ కঌɴ⏋ɗɌɩላకঌɻᘺɴ⏋ᘺɻᦅᨆɹܩݖЦɴ⏋ᢩܐձཝకፑɴȋςкᇕɴ ʱᏼʞʭȩըɐʳȍɭȦȩకፑɹೣഀɹઝܒɭɻᦥɐʳʭȩɲᏼʛȵɲɇʶɩȦʳɹ ɫȡʳ⏏̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɭȦȩܕࢃɴܕ᭬ЦȴʰᢩܐձཝకፑȵዺȷЊȿʰʶɩȦʳɹɭؾɍ෯ ܒɻ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏܕԒɹμ߈ɭܩɫԗჼɇʶɩȦʳ⏏ ǵႶጓಁɴకঌȵᏝɌɛɻɑɹᢌȴɇɻ 40 ॷɛɤɩʢࡸჼɇʶɩȲʰɑ⏋ɇʰɴɻ෯ᦶᠭ కፑɹʢɭɫכᆹᢹఠᔒᢹɹ؝ᇰᓔᢦɹհɴʭɤɩᅊ༎ᮑɻވ֓Ɍɛ⏏Ё܌ɹᢩܐձ ཝకፑɴɌɩʢ⏋ࢪᢒܩݖᮃȵࡴɇʶɩȲʰɑ⏋కፑɹࡸ֟ਸȵȡɤɛɭɌɩʢᚚȼঃ ȼਜ਼ȵؖʉɴɐȹɲȦ⏏ȲɗʰȼɻᦅзɻకঌɴࢪɌɩέѵઢˁୃȦɩȲʱ⏋కঌȵጺ ˁِȦɩʢᤐʰɲȼɲɤɩȦʳ⏏ᦅзɻ⏋ଘ྇ɹʦЦᣂೣɹ༎ᅎˁᦲɍɩ⏋ࢌ 13) ჼܧɹ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹܩకɴȲȦɩɻ⏋ᘺɴάеకеɭɌɩȋךȍ(kitongoji) ȵᒞɇʶɩȦʳȵ⏋ ዛǾɹໆࡴɻᘺͤ̾͡ɫʼʶɩȲʱ⏋ךȵႶᕶɴлʰȴɹໆࡴ༎֪ˁȩɄɭɻࢹɲȦ⏏ 14) ᩃ 1999; 2000ɫɻ⏋ອգીˁࡸᤋɌɩȦʳອգᏼᑩʢ⏋μᇕɲ͍Ͳ̫ͻˁ᭑Ȧɩ⏋ᑃʦȴɲᏼᑩᑂ ଁჿɴݜɧȦɩᐄଁɇʶɩȦʳɄɭˁ౩ʰȴɴɌɩȦʳ⏏ɄɹʭȩɲᑃʦȴɲᑂଁჿɴɦȦɩ⏋ँ 2003: 193-195ɻውзɌȩʳ̶ͦͲ̘ˑˏɹࡔܧɭԊؾкɹᬖఔਸɭᝠჼɌɩȦʳ⏏
ȴɴᕶʰɹᅊࡔᅭˁஜɤɩȦʳ⏏ᢩܐձཝకፑȵᅙೝᇕɲଁഗˁՏɇɲȦȴȹʱ⏋৳ʰɻς кᇕɴؒᅙɌʭȩɭɻɌɲȦɫȡʸȩ⏏ɌȴɌɲȵʰ⏋ჼܧɹᢩܐձཝకፑɻ⏋৳ʰɹςкᇕ ɲؒᅙˁకፑȵଁഗˁՏɐɛʠɹմரɭɌɩȦʳ⏏ɄɄɴ⏋ᢩܐձཝకፑɹࡸᤋΫɹሺሄȵࡔ ܧɐʳ⏏
ࠫࢊ̢̥̀ͅ
ǵ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɫࡸేɇʶɦɦȡʳᢩܐձཝకፑɴɦȦɩɻ⏋Цᐁཕᨆᬐաɹᬖᇍᅙˁʠ Ƚʳஹ֖үԒᨆɫɹ̼˰̢͐ͻϝȦ⏋ᨆᬐաᬖᇍᅙɹΥӯᇕɲᣂᩆ፬ჿɹکᰍ⏋ܩՕณ ˁȩʏȷላకঌɹకᔨፈǾ⏋ೣዣɫ៘ʶʰʶɲȴɤɛکᰍʢధࡔܧɐʳ⏏ೣዣɫ៘ ʶɛᗐॵɹکᰍɻ⏋ܩݖድᓔȵܕࢃͤ̾͡ɹᬖᇍకፑˁʛɩȦȼȩȭɫᬠਕˁଡȩʏȷɫȡ ʳɭǸݚፆᓔȵᓒȭɩȦʳʢɹɹёኍɫȡʳ⏏ ǵ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏకঌɴɭɤɩʢ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏᦅɹзɴɭɤɩʢ⏋ᢩܐձཝకፑɻ෯ᦶᠭకፑ ɭؾɴᨆȴʰେɌɦȿʰʶɛకፑɫȡʳ⏏෯ᦶᠭకፑᦽ༐ɻ⏋ȋᐁཕଁᬏɄɗȵ⏋ɗ ɹؖ֟ഗˁᦲɍɩᢩܐˁ᭑ؑɫȷʳɭȦȩጓݭȍˁɭɤɩȲʱ⏋1970 ॷБɹݜೣᇕᅊ༎ӱ ˏ̺ͦͻ̍ɴʭʳᢩܐձཝకፑɴࢪɌɩ⏋ȋᢩᓔఛཕɹɛʠɹకঌఌՏɹᔋ߂ȵᔈਕɹᐁ ཕଁᬏˁཝຏɌɩɌʚɤɩ⏋ᦥɴᢩܐˁ֓ᦵɐʳȍɭଫՠɌɩȦɛೣ 1995: 7ɻɑɫ ȡʱ⏋෯ᦶᠭకፑɹಁБˁᐁɩԗʃᢩܐձཝˁᬖᇍɹᠩᰍɭɌɲȿʶɽɲʰɲȦɭɐʶɽ⏋ ෯ᦶᠭకፑɴکᰍȵȡɤɛɭȦȩʓȴɲȦ⏏ɗʶɴʢȴȴʼʰɑ⏋̊Ͳ˸̢ˏకঌʢ⏋̊Ͳ ˸̢ˏᦅзʢ⏋ܕ᭬ᩆᜨลᬠɴςࢷɇʶʳʭȩɲᢩܐձཝకፑɴೝ৺ɐʏȷɫȡʳɹȴ⏏ Ȳɗʰȼɻɗɹʭȩɲᆄکˁ٘ɐʳɄɭʢɫȷɑ⏋ήИɭɌɩரኍɇʶɛకፑɴࢪɌɩ⏋̊ Ͳ˸̢ˏకঌɗɌɩᦅзɻয়ϟᓔɭɌɩᬠʼɤɩȦȼɹɫȡʸȩ⏏৳ʰȵȦȴɴᬠʼɤɩ ȦȼɹȴˁឿࡴʠɩȦȼɄɭȵ⏋ܩݖድᓔɹድᠩᰍɭɲʱȩʳɫȡʸȩ⏏ɗɄɫᠭɐʏ ȷɻ⏋৳ʰɹɌɛɛȴɇɫȡʳ⏏μ߈కঌȵధࡓغʼɓˁɤɩᇿฌғɹ᧒ଁˁខȲȩɭɐʳ ɹʢ⏋కᏼᑩɭɻᮐʶɛɭɄʸɫᬖᇍဤȵʼʶɩȦɗȩɲɄɭʢ⏋৳ʰɹɌɛɛȴɇɹ ჼʶȴʢɌʶɲȦ⏏ਥɲȵʰ⏋కፑᧅɴȲȦɩʭʱɻ⏋ୄɴȲȦɩςкਸȵᇍஸɇʶɩ Ȧʳʭȩɴઢɍʰʶʳ⏏ʚɇɴ⏋కፑȵԒᨆȴʰᇍɌɛʢɹɫɲȦɄɭɹ˃ɞᝠჼ০ɫȡʸ ȩ⏏ ǵɰɄɴࡴဣ៎ཀྵɹеᒞʱˁȩȴɻድᓔɴʭɤɩɇʚɊʚɫȡʸȩȵ⏋ݚፆᓔɻᨆ ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏɹழᩆс႒ˁʓɭ˃ɰ୫ɛɲȦᦅɴɗɹܩဣˁࡴʠɛ⏏ܦ҉ᇕɲܦɴେɌɦ ʉɇʶʳᦅ⏋˫ͦͻ̫͡ɇʶʳᦅɭȦȩឿʢخᔨɫȡʱ⏋ɗɹʭȩɲឿȴʰஹ֖ү ɭɌɩጓɠჼʶʳӴᦽूܕˁٚᇍɐʳɄɭʢخᔨɫȡʸȩȵ⏋ЦᐁཕᄩޅɹɴɌɛɛ ȴɴࢪਝɌɩȦʳᦅᦅӉˁஜɌິʠʳʓȩȵ⏋ݚፆᓔɴɻɻʳȴɴ᳄ᇕɫȡʳ⏏৳ʰ ɴᢩɌɇˁឿȦɞɐɹɫɻɲȼ⏋ᢌȴɇˁឿȦɞɐែ៓ɭៜȦȴȭɩʢʭȦɫȡʸȩ⏏ᨊ॑ው֪֝ӈˁʢᏼʛᦉ˃ɫଘ྇ɹˁܒʱɲȵʰ⏋Ȧȴɴ৳ʰȵɌɛɛȴɴᅊȷାȦɩȦʳ ɹȴ⏋ɗɹȋᅊȍˁ౩ʰȴɴɌʭȩɭɐʳែဣɻ⏋Ԓᇍᇕᇍࣙ⏋୫ᐚᇕɲᬖᇍɴكȿɩɹ৳ ʰɹςкᇕɲᏼʛˁɭʰȭȩʳࢮዐˁɌɩȦʳɹɫɻɲȴʸȩȴ⏏Ʉʶȵ⏋ȡʚʱɴʢ̠ ˓ͻ̸ɲድែ៓ɫɲȦɄɭˁᰔɤɩʦʚɲȦ⏏
֨ȁဥȁȁࡃ
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ᐒଘኼᏛ⏏1997⏏ȏᬖᇍɹకᐁཕȑೣᠶ⏏
⏏1998⏏ȋᬖᇍᐁཕɭᢩܐکᰍȍᐒଘኼᏛऊॺᑂȏᬖᇍɭᢩܐ⏧ᢩܐɹᐁཕՕഓɴكȿ ɩȑˏ˻ˏᐁཕድଘ, 3-38⏏
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Havnevik, Kjell J. 1993. Tanzania: The Limits to Development from Above. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. ॶᩃӷै⏏2002⏏ȏܒᠦˏ̶͠ˡᐁཕȑೣᠶ⏏ ᩃǵ⏏1999⏏ȋ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏ⏋̮ͤॶܩɹອգᏼᑩ⏧ആˏ̶͠ˡɴȲȿʳᦅԊؾкˁʠȽʳΥ᠅ ᠶȍᩃǵᑂȏˏ̶͠ˡᦅӉɹԗද២ȑˏ˻ˏᐁཕድଘ⏋59-115⏏ ⏏2000⏏ȋ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏ⏋̮ͤᵴɴȲȿʳϗ࡚ဌྰс⏧ܩݖЦᏼᑩɹࡔܧ০ˁʠȽʳΥᓒ ࢘ȍऄᅒٞॶᑂȏˏ̶͠ˡࢸᦅȲʭʃᦅЦɹᔫਸވ߂ɴᬠɐʳድȑॶଁ 9-11 ॷయᨆዀህ ዀድᢹជ֖ᩆݜᇻድ (A) (2)⏃ᠩᰍᅱش 09041050⏆ድଁഗݬٚೆ⏋138-191⏏ ⏏2001⏏ȋႶጓ̊Ͳ˸̢ˏᐁཕɭ෯ᦶᠭకፑȍӯᗔΥᑂȏ˫ͦͻ̫̄͠ͻ˹͚Ͳɭܕᐁ ཕɹ᧧ିȑആϴ߂ՏႆЦ⏋245-276⏏ ˻͚ͻ˻⏋˽ͻ˸Ͳ⏋̶ˎ̸̒̍͠˵̾̒͠⏏1996⏏ȏγᅠ᪃ɻܩჽˁఛȭʳȴ⏧ᬖᇍज़ܕ 50 ॷɹ ֒ᒜȑພգᖪΥ៱⏋ృᓬ⏏(George, Susan and Fabrizio Sabelli. 1994. Faith and Credit: The World Bank’s Secular Empire. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books).
Johansson, Lars. 2001. Ten Million Trees Later: Land Use Change in the West Usambara Mountains: The Soil Erosion Control and Agroforestry Project in Lushoto District 1981-2000. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technishe Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). ܕ᭬תϟܕ᭬תᐵغѹଘᑂ⏏2001⏏ȏᢩܐձཝɴᬠɐʳݜኄᇕድȑ⏏ ँǵ᭞Υ⏏2003⏏ȋˏ̶͠ˡᐁཕɭԊؾк⏧ᣧᒽჿᠶɹԗද២ȍॶᩃӷैᑂȏˏ̶͠ˡᐁཕࡺៜȑˏ˻ ˏᐁཕድଘ⏋187-228⏏ ೣᒭ১⏏1995⏏ȋᢩܐɭɻɲɴȴȍೣᒭ১ᑂȏᬖᇍᠶɹ̶ͦͲ̘ˑˏȑؾయᖌ⏏ ߡെΥ⏏2000⏏ȋˏ̶͠ˡɹᬖᇍȍܤᅊᬏዥᑂȏᬖᇍɭ˫ͦͻ̫̄͠ͻ˹͚Ͳȑബೆଗ⏋321-340⏏ иᚹǵ⏏2003⏏ȋؒ֓݀ᬖᇍɹȏԗද២ȑȍиᚹǵᑂȏؒ֓݀ᬖᇍɹԗද២ȑˏ˻ˏᐁཕድଘ⏋3-36⏏ γᅠ᪃⏏2002⏏ȏγᅠᬖᇍݬٚ2000/2001⏧ᢩܐɭɹ᬴Ȧȑីाǵ࿅ᇺ៱⏋Ϥמजؗࡎ៱⏋˹͖̺͠Ͳ
ˤͻ̶˙ˏ͞ͻ˪ആϴ⏏(The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. 2001. World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty)
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