313
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎ ＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica
MarkLedbetter
IＮＴＲＯＤＵＣＴＩＯＮ
Ｔｈｉｓｉｓａｓｔｕｄｙｏｆｔｈｅｗａｙｔｈｅｗｏｒｌｄｉｓstructuredmetaphoricallyby theJapaneselanguageandtheEnglishlanguagebasedontheconcepts
proposedbyGeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnsonintheirclassicandinfluen‐
tialwork， MetaphorsWeLiveB
Metaphorhastraditionallybeenconsignedtotherelativelylimited sphereofliterarywritingLinguisticevidence，however，revealsthat metaphorispervasivethroughoutlanguage,thatlanguageandourcon‐
ceptualsystemsarelargelymetaphoricaLItisimpossible,ｉｎfact,ｔｏｃａｒｒｙ ｏｎａｎｙｋｉｎｄoflanguageexchangebeyondthemostabruptandrudimen‐
tarywithoutextensive,1argelyunconscioususeofmetaphor・ForLakoff andJohnson，thismetaphoricalstructuringoftheworldthroughlan‐
guagehascriticalconsequencesonhowweperceive,think,andstructure conceptsandreality，Ｔｈａｔ,ｏｆcourse,affectshowweorganizeourselves
mtospecificsocietiesandcultures・ＴｈｅｒｅｉｓａｓｍａＵｓｅｔｏｆｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｃｅｓｗｅｈａｖｅａｓｈｕｍａｎｓｉｎｔｈｉｓｗｏｒｌｄ
ｗｈｉｃｈｗｅunderstanddirectlyandnon-metaphorically，Theseinclude thingslike:body，Withinsideandoutside;physicalorientationslikeup anddown;andcertaininteractionswiththeworld，people，institutions，
andthelikeWetakethevocabularywehavedevelopedtodescribesuch
experientiallybasicorprimarythinｇｓａｎｄｅｘｔｅｎｄｉｔｔｏｍｏｒｅｃｏｍｐｌｅｘ
ｉｄｅａsandexperiencesforwhichwehavenodirectvocabularyLinguisti‐
３１４
callyprimaryconceptssuchasphysicalorientationinspacaobjects,sub‐
stances,seeing,journeys,war,madnesspflood,andbuildingsareusedas metaphorsｔｏｄｅｖｅｌｏｐａｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｂｙｗｈｉｃｈｗｅｃａnunderstandothercon ceptssuchaslovatime,ideas,understanding,labor,moralityetc、ｗｈｉｃｈ ａｒｅｎｏｔexperientiallyasbasic
Conceptssuchastheselatterareoftenunderstoodinwaysthatare quitecomplex,withoneideametaphoricallydescribedbyanideawhich isitselfunderstoodmetaphorically・Ourmetaphorscomefromandcon‐
tributetogestaltsthathelpusunderstandlarge,complicatedthingsand situationsassinglewholesTheparticularmetaphorsthatwechｏｏｓｅｔｏ ｕｓｅｆｏｒａｎｙｇｉｖｅｎｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅｈighlightcertainaspectsofthosegestalts whilehidingothers、Wedevelopahighlyintricateconceptualsystemof layered,interwovenmetaphorstodescribeourreality・Ｗｉｔｈｓｕｃｈｃｏｍ‐
plexityandapparentpotentialforvariation,wemightpostulatethatthe
oJganizationofthemetaphoricalsystemwithinthemindisthereasonfor，
oratleastanexpressionofthehighlydivergentwaysthatdifferentcul- tures,ａｎｄwithinthemdifferentsubcultures,andwithinthose,different individuals,perceiveandunderstandreality．
ＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＷＡＲ
LakoffandJohnson,anyway,makethisclaim、Ｔｈｅｙｕｓｅｔｈｅｍｅｔａ‐
phoricalstructuringoftheconceptczf1gzJme"ttointroducetheirdiscussion ofmetaphor．Ａ'9Ｗ加e、isacommonactivityinallcultures・Ｂｕｔｗｈａｔｉｓ ｔｈｅｒｏｌｅｏｒｍｅａｎｉｎｇｏｒｕｎｄerstandingorpurposeofa?igzJ”ｃｍｉｎａｎｙｐａｒ‐
ticularculture？Themetaphoricalsystemusedtoexpresstheconceptof a71gzJ池e?ｚＺｍａｙｂｅｔｈｅｋｅｙｔｏａｎｓｗｅｒｉｎｇｔｈｉｓｑuestion，LakoffandJohnson proposefourimportantmetaphoricalpillarsthatsupporta7g”z巴冗ｔｉｎ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ
ｌ）ＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＷＡＲ、ThatstatementismdefensibleHeat‐
tackedeveryweakpointinmypositioｎTheretortwasrighton target・Hisargumentwasdemolished,wipedout,ｓｈｏｔｄｏｗｎＨｅｒ
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica ３１５ ｓｔｒａｔｅｇｙｗａｓｇｏｏｄｓｏｓｈｅｗｏｎｔｈｅａｒｇｕｍｅｎｔ、
２）ＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＡＢＵＩＬＤＩＮＧＭｙａｒｇｕｍｅｎｔｃollapsedforlackof
support，Yourargumentisshaky・There,snofoundationforthat ideaBuildastrongcaseShoreupyourargument、３）ＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＡＪＯＵＲＮＥＹＷｅ'vecoveredalotofgroundbut
westillhaven，treachedaconclusion・rveproceededinastep-by‐ｓｔｅｐｆａｓｈｉｏｎｔｏｐｏｉｎｔｏｕｔｔｈｅｗａｙｔｏａsolutionYou,regoing aroundincircles・Iovearrivedatadisturbingconclusion・ＩＯｖｅｓｅｔ ｏｕｔｔｏｐｒｏｖｅｔｈａｔ…ＷｈｅｎＩｇｅｔｔｏｔｈｅｎｅｘｔｐｏｉｎｔ…Ｍｙｇｏａｌｉｓｔｏ ｓｈｏｗ…Ｄｏｙｏｕｆｏｌｌｏｗｍｅ？
４）ＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＡＣＯＮＴＡＩＮＥＲＹｏｕｒａｒｇｕｍｅntlackscontent、
１t，ｓｆｕｌｌｏｆｈｏｌｅｓｌｔ，svacuous,empty1won,tholdwater・
Iwouldproposethatofthesefourmetaphors,zuαγisthemostdefini‐
tiveandimportant,andthatthetotalstructureofatypicalargumentis moreeasilyexplaiｎｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｗａｒｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｔｈａｎａｎｙｏｆｔｈeothersSince argumentisametaphoricalwar,thereａｒｅｗｉｎｎｅｒｓａｎｄｌｏｓｅｒｓＳｉｎｃｅｉｔｉｓ ａｗａｒ,thewinnerwillnormallyfeelvictoriousandtriumphantandthe loserdefeatedⅢhurt，bitter，ａｎｄangry、Sinceargumentiswar，people spendtheirsolitarytimedaydreamingofvictories,plottingrevenge,and layingstrategiesforregainingpsychologicalterritorylostinprevious arguments、Wemaynotconsciouslythink“war,''buttuzz必ｍｕｃｈｍｏｒｅ ｔｈａｎｂ”Jdか2ｇｊＯ"meMorco冗如i"“isthemetaphorthatdescribeswhatis goingoninourminds．
ＣＵＬＴＵＲＡＬＤＩＦＦＥＲＥＮＣＥＳ
Ｗｈａｔｉｆ,say,Jozmzeywasthedominantmetaphorstructuringargu‐
ment？Whatadifferenceitwouldmakeinourrelationswithothersand inourinｎｅｒｌｉｖｅｓｉｆｒｅａｃｈｉｎｇｔｈｅｇｏａｌａｎｄｌｅarningwhatisthere,rather thanwinningthewar,wasthedominantconcern、LakoffandJohnson askasimilarquestionTheyaskustoimagineaculturewhereargument isstructurednotintermsofwａｒｂｕｔｏｆｄａｎｃｅ，Theyexplainthatinsuch
３１６
ａsituation，
…theparticipantsareseenasperforｍｅｒｓａｎｄｔｈｅｇｏａｌｉｓｔｏｐｅｒｆｏｒｍｉｎ ａｂａlancedandpleasingwaylnsuchaculture,peoplewouldview argumentsdifferently，experiencethemdifferently，carrythemout differently1andtalkaboutthemdifferently．
Themetaphoritselfwouldmakethemembersofthishypothetical tribeverynicepeople，Itiscertainlypleasanttoimagine"suchaculture.，，
Butisthereone？Isthereanyhumanlanguagethatstructuresargument asdance？Isthereanylanguageforwhichzuzzγisnotthedominantmeta‐
phorforargument？ＩｓｕｓｐｅｃｔｔｈａｔｔｈｅＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＷＡＲｍｅtaphor maycomefromourexperienceａｓｈｕｍａｎｂｅｉｎｇｓａｎｄｂｅｒｏｏｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅ ｈumancondition，notparticularculturalconditionｓＩｆｓｏ,whatweare hasdeterminedthemetaphorratherthantheotherwayaround・Lakoff andJohnson1shypotheticalworldiscertainlyniceButisitreal？Ｉfwe areconcernedwithtruthandnotfantasywemustfearlesslymakethe
mqulry・
LakoffandJohnsonrevealheretheweaknessoftryingtomakea universalargumentfromlinguisticdatawithoutfirstconsideringevi‐
dencefromotherlanguages、ＴｈｅｙcontinuetodosothroughoutMeta．
〕hｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢ Theyproposethatsvstematicmetaphorsoftenvary ■ greatlyfromlanguagetolanguage,affectingthethoughtsandactionsof speakersofdifferentlanguages・However，itremainsasuppositionon theirpaｒｔａｓｔｈｅｉｒｗｏｒｋｗａｓｄｏｎｅｐｒｉｍａｒｉｌｙｗｉｔｈｏｎｌｙｏｎｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ:Ｅｎｇ‐
lishIftheyarerightthatmetaphoricalstructuringoftheworldorgan‐
izesthoughtａｎｄaction,andiftheyarerightthatsystematicmetaphors oftenvarygreatlyfromlanguagetolanguage,thereisaheretoforeunful‐
fiUedneedtocomparethemetaphoricalsystemsofdifferentlanguages，
Understandingthedifferentmetaphoricalunderpinningsofdifferentcul‐
tureswillteachusagreatdealaboutthosecultures．
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica 317
PＵＲＰＯＳＥＯＦＴＨＩＳＳＴＵＤＹ
Whatisneeded,then,isanactualstudyofthemetaphoricalstructur‐
ingofconceptsinasignificantcross-sectionofhumanlanguages、Ｔｈｉｓ ｐａｐｅｒｉｎｔｅｎｄｓｔｏｂｅａｓｔｅｐｉｎｔｈａtdirection,asteptowardsdiscovering
whichmetaphorsareuniversalandwhicharenot・
BecausetheydealprimarilywithEnglish,LakoffandJohnsondonot phrasemuchoftheirargumentintermsoflanguageuniversals・Across‐
culturalstudy,though,needstodopreciselythat・obviously,eachofthe
approximately5,０００１anguagesoftheworldcannotbestudiedtofindwhatisuniversaLResearchersonlanguageuniversalsovercomethis difficultybycomparingameaningfulcross-sectionoflanguages，This cross-sectionwouldideallyfollowthecriteriaforinvestigatiｏｎｏｆｌａか
guageuniversalsproposedbyBernarｄＣｏｍｒｉｅｉｎ LanguageUniversals andLinguisticTypolo2Thecross-sectionshouldincludelanguages thatarelinguistically,typologically,culturally,andgeographicallyunre‐
lated，asonlysimilarelementsfromunrelatedlanguagesarelikelyto indicateuniversality・Ｆｏｒexample,ｗｈｅｎlookingforlanguageuniversals，
comparingEnglishandFrench,orcomparingJapaneseandKorean,ａｒｅ notproductivecomparisons・ComparingEnglishandJapaneseismuch moreinterestingbecausethetwolanguagesarelinguistically，
typologically,culturally,andgeographicallyunrelated．
ＲＥＳＵＬＴＳＯＦＴＨＩＳＳＴＵＤＹ
Beforemakinganyfirmassertions，metaphorsfromameaningful cross-sectionofdifferentlanguageswouldneedtobeanalyzedHowever，
thispreliminarycomparisonoftwounrelatedlanguage，asteptowards suchameaningfulcross-section,producessomeintriguingresults、
FirstofalLaftercomparingeachandeveryoneoftheimportantand
systematicmetaphoricalcategoriesproposedbyLakoffandJohnson（re‐３１８
sultssummarizedinDictm"αぴ0/Syste腕aticMmzPho7sbelow）Ifindthat systematicmetaphors,contrarytothesuppositionofLakoffandJohnson areP”ciselytheonesthatarelikelytobethesameforEnglishandJapa‐
neseand,byimplication,ｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏｂｅｔｈｅｓａｍｅｆｏｒｍｏｓｔｏｒａｌｌｌanguages・
ThereａｒｅimportantmetaphorsthatarenotthesameforEnglishand Japanese,ｂｕｔｔｈｅｙｔｅｎｄｔｏｂｅｓｉｎｇｌｅｉｓｏｌａｔｅｄｅxamplesor,ifsystematic，
partofanarrowlimitedsystem・
AtfirstblushthisinvalidatesLakoffandJohnson，sassumptionofthe
culturalpowerofmetaphor、Ｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ,non-universalmetaphors，
thosethatmayvaryfromlanguagetolangueandchangewithinasingle languageovertime,ｍａｙｈｏｌｄｓｗａｙｏｖｅｒｓｐｅａｋｅｒｓｏｆｔｈｅlanguage,despite oftenlackingsystematicity・Inotherwords,LakoffandJohnsonmaybe right,ｂｕｔｍａｙｂｅｌｏｏｋｉｎｇｉｎｔｈｅｗｒｏｎｇｐｌａｃｅ・Ｉｔｍａｙｂｅｔｒｕｅｔｈａｔｍｅｔａ‐
phorsdeeplyaffectthespeakersoflanguage,butthatitisnon-systematic metaphorswhichtendtovaryandthereforereflectorcreatecultural
differences、
Ｔｈｉｓｄｉｓｃｏｖｅｒｙｈａｓｌｅｄｍｅｔｏｖｉｅｗｔｈｅstudyofmetaphorssomewhat
differentlythanLakoffandJohnson・Theyassumethatmostmetaphors
arevariableacrosscultures・Therefore,theyseethestudyofmetaphorsasakeytounderstandingculture・Lthough,findevidencethatagreat manymetaphorsareuniversaLIpropose,then,thatuniversalmetaphors tellussomethingabouthumannaturewhilenon-universalmetaphorstell usaboutspecificcultureslbelieve,inotherwords,thatmetaphorisnot onlyawindowonculturebutawindowontheuniversaｌｈｕｍａｎｍｉｎｄ
ｉｔｓｅｌｆ
Ａｓｔｈｉｓｐａｐｅｒｉｓｏｎｌｙａｓｕｍｍａｒｙｏｆｍｙｔｏｔａｌｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ,Ｉｗｉｌｌｈｅｒｅｐｒｅ‐
ｓｅｎｔｉｎｄｅｔａｉｌｏｎｌｙｔｗｏｅｘａｍｐｌｅｓＯｎｅisasystematicmetaphor,theother non-systematic．
ＡＮＡＬＹＳＩＳＯＦＡＳＹＳＴＥＭＡＴＩＣＭＥＴＡＰＨＯＲ
Letusfirstconsiderthepervasiveandextensivesystematicmeta‐
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica 319 phorIMOU征Aswithmostsystematicmetaphors,JapaneseandEnglish arequitesimilarintheirusage,thoughnotidenticaLInfact,IchosenVI/Ｌ ＯＵＴｆｏｒｔｈｉｓｐａｐｅｒｂｅｃａｕｓｅｉｔｉｓｕｎｕsualamongsystematicmetaphorsin showingsomeinterestingareasofdifferencebetweenEnglishandJapa‐
nese、Ｔｈｅｎｗｅｗｉlllookatapowerfulnon-systematicmetaphorinEng‐
ｌｉｓｈ－ＬＥＴＯＦＦＳＴＥＡＭ－ａｎｄｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｈｏwitmayconfirmtheLakoff Johnsonhypothesisconcerningtheimportanceofmetaphorinforming culture1andconfirmmyownhypothesisthatculturallysignificantmeta‐
phorstendtobenon-systematic．
1Ｎ/OUT
ＴｈｅｍａｎｖｍｅａｎｉｎＲｓｏｆｌＮａｎｄＯＵＴ． Ｔｈｅ metaphoricalusesand うち，なか／そと（uchi，
meaningsofEnglishinner/outerandJapaneseうち，なか／そと（uchi，
naka/soto）ａｒｅbasic,extensive,andcomplexinbothEnglishandJapa‐
nese，Despitethecomplexity，though，therearesurprisingsimilarities betweenthewaysthetwolanguagesusethismetaphor，Someofthe commonmetaphoricalmeaｎｉｎｇｓｆｏｒｌＮ/OUTthatlfoundinJapanese and/orEnglishare：
truth,meaningsignificance knowledge,understanding hidden,secret
privatQpersonal
mental,psychologicaLspiritual friendly,similar,related mediation
mternalconflict informal,unofficial inanemotionalstate
involvedinasituation,involvedindoing moderate
ＢＧＢＧ●●●●■●●Ｏ Ｇ■■△（叩〆】（⑰（）△几ユニニＬ【、》〈民唖）【］ロｊ，（叩（）（、『）（川叩）・■Ⅱ△（叩〃】●■Ⅱ▲つⅡ■▲包曰Ⅱ（
320
●巳０■
（叩ご■）・ロ勿一△戸●』扣亜）（←（叩）
曰■■（●■曰一色ⅡⅡ旱勺ⅡⅡ｛ｕｎｃｏｎｓｃｌｏｕｓｉｕｎａｗａｒｅ
ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｉｎｇ,operating incontrol
fashionable
l-llarefoundinbothlanguages;l2isfromJapanese;l3-16arefrom English・Manyofthesecategoriesoverlapandreinforceeachother、Pri‐
vatethings（Cat､４),forexample,areoftentrueandsecret（Cat､1,3),ｏｒ ｂｅｌｉｅｖｅｄｔｏｂｅｔｒｕｅｂｙｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｇｕardtheirprivacy・Truth,meaning significance,andknowledgeofthesethings,inourexperienceashuman beings,areusuallydifficulttofindandsoｓｅｅｍｔｏｂｅｈｉｄｄｅｎＷｅｕｎｄｅｒ－
ｓｔａｎｄａndmakesenseofitallbymetaphoricallyplacingthesethings inside,accessibletothose"intheknow/,butinaccessibleto"outsiders,I whoareblockedfromunderstandｉｎｇａｎｄｓｅｅｉｎｇｂｙｔｈｅｗａｌｌｓｏｆｔｈｅＣＯＮ‐
TAINER（arelatedLakoffianmetaphor）holdingthetruth・
Metaphorsoftenoverlapthefirstthreecategories,sometimesthefirst five,andonoccasionjustaboutanyofthecategoriesinbothEnglishand Japa､eseSomeexamplesthatfitoneormoreofthefirstthreecategories
areg
English
Insecret,insideinformation,outwardlycheerfulbutinwardlysa｡,in onthisproject,aninjoke,theinsidestory,inreality,introspection Japanese
内心“ｊｓｈｍａｎｄ心の中兜o虎０ｍ〃０打αんα,innerheart（one,strueand hiddendesires,feelings,intentions)/内証〃αｉｓﾉzQsecretorprivate/内 聞にする？zzzj6岬〃ｉｓ"γ脚，inside-hear（keepitsecret)／内包〃αjhozJ (connotation)／内情“加"，inner-condition（insidestateofaffairs，
realstateofaffairsofacompanyetc)/内情に通じている〃α加況〃ｉ 如吻jZc”inner-conditionswell-versedin(haveinsiderinformation)／
内密〃α”艦24,inside-secret/内々〃αmaLinside-inside,insidesecret/内 的〃αiね“inner-ish，（inner,mental)／内実〃αががSCJ，inside-truth（iｎ
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica３２１
reality,thetruth)/内幕〃C"”α々",inside-curtain（theinsidestory,the
realconditions）
InbothEnglishandJapanese,ametaphoricalusageofIN/OUTthat includesthemeaningsofcategoriesl-3oftenincludesthemeaningsof categories4and5aswell、ButinJapaneseitcanalsoinclude9（informal，
unofficial)．InJapansomethingthatisinside,ａｍｏｎｇone，sgroup,canbe dealtwithinformallyandunofficially,ｓｏｔｈｉｓｉｓａｖｅｒｙｎａｔｕｒａｌｕｓａｇｅｉｎ
Japanese：
内定噸彪Ainside-decision（privateandunofficialbuttherealdeci‐
sion)／内定する“蛇ｊｓ邸、（decideinformallyorunofficially)／内縁，
"qje〃（informaLunofficialmarriage)/内示〃αii/Z（informalunofficial notification）内示する〃α腕s"、（notifyinformally,unofficially）
Cat,lOinEnglishincludes:j〃αZizzyli〃Jo"巳ｊ〃dozJb“〃cmK/hCsjo",ａｎｄ z〃αsmreq/d2P”ssjO"．JapaneseoftenexpressesCat・lOthroughthecom‐
poundwordelement中，ちゅう，ｃﾉ、〃ａｓｉｎ夢中，むちゅう，加邸c"２４脚，
dream-inside（inatrance,completelyabsorbedinsomething)．Japanese alsouses中，ちゅう，chuuforCat､１１:仕事中，しごとちゅう，ｓ/zZgDm-c/、皿 (work-inside;working)．Inaddition,Catllisexpressedthroughthecom‐
poundverb巻き込まれる，腕α腕ABomq花?w，fold-enterorfolded-intoIn situationswhereEnglishspeakerssaythingslikej?zα称,伽姉zJbJeﾛｶﾞﾙ
tﾉoJueaj邦,Japanesespeakersoftensay巻き込まれている池αんilao池α”ねiγ"・ThereasonthelN/OUTmetaphorisextendedinJapanesetoinclude themeaningofCat､１２（moderate）isnotobvious・Ｔｈｉｓｕｓａｇｅｉｓｎｏｔｓｏ
ｃｏｍｍｏｎｏｒｉｍｐｏｒｔant,butitdoesexist:内輪に見積もる邸chjzuα〃‘?"jZs皿－，０ｍ/inside-estimate（makeamoderateorconservativeestimate）
Themetaphoricalmeaningsofl3-l6aretypicalinEnglishbutnot
stronglyexpressedinJapanese・Cat､１３:Ｓﾉzelsj〃αdeePsJeaP,Ｈｂ１ｓｃｏ?"、９
０噸Q/jt(leavingthestateofunconsciousness)．Hblso"rcanalsomeanto
bej〃thestateofunconsciousness、Dependingonourperspective,moving
３２２
fromonestatetoanothercansometimesbeseenaseitherentering（in)or leaving（out)．Cat､14:i〃”"e,i〃oPemtio"’０瓦、/奴"e,０，０/OPemliO"'０ｍ
〃zuﾉzadb、Cat､１５:j〃ＣＯ"t、/,ｏ"tけＣＯ"tmJ;i〃ｃｏｍｍα"｡、Cat､１６:WIdeties
α”ｊ打坑ｊｓｙｍ７;？、?ａｍｚＵＺｉｅｓα”ｏ“
ltisnaturalin ementsofthe
CulturalsiRnificanceoflNandOUT:AspecialGestalt．
Japanesetobundleupmasinglegestaltthefollowingelementsofthe IN/OUTmetaphor:ﾉZiddc",SCC花ＬＰ、ノロtebねαﾑﾉﾌwthmJ,i'q/bﾌﾞwzaJ1andzJ"q/と /iicjZzLTruthandsignificancearemetaphoricallytiedtosecrecy,onthe
inside,awayfrompublicscrutiny,ｗｈｅｒｅｙｏｕｃａｎｌｅｔｙｏｕｒｈａｉｒｄｏｗｎａｎｄ
ｂeinformalandunofficial、ThestrengthofthisgestaltinJapaneseisreflectedbytheoft-mentioneddichotomyofh0""2/、花、“theideathat
one，strueintentionstendtobedifferentthanone,sexpressedintentions、ThesameconnectionscanexistinEnglishbuttheyaregenerallytoo
tenuｏｕｓｔｏｂｅｍａｄｅａｇｅｓｔalt・Thepartsaremoreeasilyseparated,which
leadstodifferentperceptionsandactionsForexample,therecognitionandhappyacceptanｃｅｏｆｔｈｅｌＮ/ＯＵＴ gestaltinJapanesesocietyhasledｔｏｔｈｅｉｄｅａｔｈａｔａｐｕｂｌｉｃｏｒｏｆｆｉｃｉａｌ positionisnotnecessarilytrue・Theunofficialposition,i､e､theinner,hid denposition,ｉｓｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏｂｅｔｈｅｒｅａｌｏｎｅ・Theofficialposition,bycontrast，
ｉｓｏｎｔｈｅｏｕｔｓｉｄｅ:public,open,andunreaLEnglishspeakers,morethan Japanese,believethattheofficialpositioｎｉｓｏｒｓｈｏｕｌｄｂｅｒｅａｌａｎｄｔｒｕｔｎ
ｆｕＬＳｏAmericans,ｆｏｒexample,feelmorebetrayed,deceived,ａｎｄａｎｇｒｙ ｗｈｅｎｔｈｅｙｆｍｄｔｈａｔｉｔｉｓｎｏｔ・OfcoursenotjustmJapanbutalsoinAmerica,theofficialpositionis
oftennotreaLHowever,Americans,aLakoffianmighthypothesize,areunpreparedbyametaphoricalgestalttoacceptthedeceptioninherentin
officialactionsAmericans,therefore,arelikelytoresorｔｔｏａｎｇｅｒａｎｄａ
ｓｅｎｓｅｏｆｂｅｔｒａｙａｌｗｈｅnthatparticularrealitycomes“out，，whilemany Japanesepeacefullyacquiescelnfact,ｔｈｉｓｄｏｅｓｓｅｅｍｔｏｂｅｔｈｅｃａｓｅ、
ThisweakeracceptanceofthetotalityoftheIN/OUTgestaltonthe
partofAmericans,andstrongeracceptanceonthepartofJapanese,ｍｉｇｈｔ
ｂｅａｎｅｘａｍｐｌｅｏｆｔｈｅｐｏｗｅｒｏｆｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｔｏｍｏｔivateattitudesandac‐
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica 323 tions、ButthereareotherquiteplausibleexplanationsForexample,ｉｔ mightbehypothesizedthatthedifferencemAmericanandJapaneseatti‐
tudestowardsexposureofofficialdeceptionisaconsequenceofan AmericandistrustofauthorityandaJapaneserespectforauthority
Thedifferentexplanations,however,ｓｈｏｕｌｄｐｒｏｂａｂｌｙｎｏｔｂｅｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ ｏｆａｓcompetingtheories、Ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｌｉｋｅｌｙｎｏｔｈｉｎｇｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎｓｅparate threadsinthefabricofculture,ｗｈｉｃｈcannotbeunderstoodwhenconsid‐
eredindependently，IfAmericansandJapanesereactdifferentlytothe discoverythattheofficialpositioｎｉｓｕｎｔｒｕｅ,itisareactiongroundedin theentirefabricofculture、Ｏｎｅmightsaytheattitudeissprungfroma metaphoricalgestaltOronemighｔｓａｙｔｈａｔｔｈｅｇｅｓｔａｌｔｉｓｓｐｒｕｎｇｆｒｏｍ culturalattitudesOrmostlikely,ｏｎｅmightsaythatthegestaltandatti‐
tudesreinforceeachother・
LakoffandJohnsonpointoutthatsignificantmetaphorscharacteris‐
ticallyinvolveanumberofrelatedmetaphorsinasystematicway．』apa‐
neseandEnglishbothinvolveother，similarmetaphorswithinthe lN/OUTstructureThemostimportantoftheseareDEEP/ＳＨＡＬＬＯＷ ａｎｄＯＮ/ＢＥＮＥＡＴＨＴＨＥＳＵＲＦＡＣＥＴｈｅｓｕｒｆａｃｅｏｆａｂｏｄｙｏｆｗａｔｅｒｉｓ ｐｅｒｃｅｉｖｅｄｂｙｕｓａｓｂｅｉｎｇｔheouterboundaryandbeneath-the-surfaceas beingwithinthebodyofwater・ＳＨＡＬＬＯＷｉｓ`withｉｎ,,butstillnearerthe surfaceandthereforefartherfromtruth，significancaunconsciousness etcｔｈａｎＤＥＥＥＤＥＥＰｉｓｆａｒｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｓｕｒｆａｃeandthereforehardertoSEE
(understand）ｔｈａｎＳＨＡＬＬＯＷ,andalsoclosertotruth,significanceand unconsciousness,whicharealsofartherlN,farfromthesurface．
English
Heseemsniceonthesurface,ｂｕｔinside（deepｄｏｗｎ）ｈｅ，sreallynot、
Ifyouthinkaboutitdeeply…
That0sashallowidea
Theteacher'sexplanationfinallysankin She'sdeepinthought、
Ｈｅ，ｓｉｎａｄｅｅｐｓｌｅｅｐ．
324
Japanese
外見はよく見えるが，中身はいい人じゃない。
Outer-appearancelooksgood,insideisnotagoodperson．
深く考えてみれば…
Ifdeeplythink-and-see…
考えが浅いです。
(His）thinkingisshallow・
先生の教えが頭にしみ込んだ。
Teacher,sthinkingsankintohead．
深い眠りに落ちた。
Falltoadeepsleep．
ＡＮＡＬＹＳＩＳＯＦＡＮＯＮ－ＳＹＴＥＭＡＴＩＣＭＥＴＡＰＨＯＲ
ThereisacommonideaintheEnglish-speakingworldandespecially inAmericathatpeopleshouldexpresstheirtruefeelings，theiranger，
theirconflicts,andtheirtensioninordertoreleaseandresolvethem・This ideaisencodedinsuchmetaphorsasg巴tがＯｍｉ〃ｵﾉzeOPe〃andgUZjZo"ね／
yo”Sysle加．Thereisonemoreespeciallypowerfulmetaphorinthis group:ＬＥＴＯＦＦＳＴＥＡＭＳｉｎｃｅｔｒｕｅａｎｄｆｕｌｌｅｘｐressionofemotionsis honest,healthy,ａｎｄgood,accordingtothisidea,thesemetaphorsusually havepositiveconnotations・Conversely，lae2Pj"ｇｉｔｊ"SjdeOrheePi?Zgit 6oZtJedmPisdangerousbecausewithoutlettingoffsteamtorelievethe pressureyoumightexplode
l、Japan,though,ｉｔｉｓｇｏｏｄｔｏ怒りをおさえる／隠す晩α”ｏｏｓａｅγ”
んα”s抑（angersuppress/hide)．Ｉｔｉｓａｌｓｏｇｏｏｄｔｏ感情をおさえるんα碗zJo osae7w（emotionssuppress)ａｎｄｂａｄｔｏ感情をあらわにする"〃ｂｚＪｏａｍｚｕα
"zszJm（emotionopenlyexpress)．Informantstellme,however,thatthe connotationsoftheseJapanesemetaphors,underforeigninfluence,ｍｉｇｈｔ ｂｅｃｈａｎｇｉｎｇ
Ｂｅｙｏｎｄｃｏｎｎｏｔａｔｉｏｎ,Ｉａｍｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｍｏｒｅｄｉｆｆｉｃｕｌｔｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓｏｆ ｗｈｅｔｈｅｒａｎｄｈｏｗｓｕｃｈｍetaphors,inthewordsofLakoffandJohnson，
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica３２５
“structurehowweperceive，ｈｏｗｗｅｔｈｉｎｋ，ａｎｄｗｈａｔｗｅｄｏ.”Iflmay relateapersonalbutrevealinganecdote…Ａｇｒｅａｔｍａｎｙｙｅａｒｓａｇｏｍｙ ｆｒｅｓｈｍａｎｐｓychologyteachertaughttheclasstｈａｔｗｅｃｏｕｌｄｇｅｔｒｉｄｏｆ ａｎｇｅｒｂｙｂｅａｔｉngonapillowthatrepresentsthepeｒｓｏｎｗｅａｒｅａｎｇｒｙａｔ・
InevertrieditandIfeelcertainnowitwouldnothaveworkedforｍｅ,but myclassmatesandIweresuitablｙｉｍｐｒｅｓｓｅｄＷｈｙｓｈｏｕｌｄｗｅａｌｌｈａｖｅ ｒｅspondedsofavorablytosuchanunlikelytechnique？Possibly，ｉｔｉｓ ｂｅｃａｕｓｅｔｈｅｉｄｅａｗａｓａｃｔｕａｌｌｙｎomorethanascholarlyinstitutionaliza‐
tionofapopular,metaphoricallystructuredidea:ルノＱ/Sfsねｑｍｊｏ”Jie"ｅ Ｐ形ssz4形．Therefore,ｗｅｗｅｒｅｐｒｉｍｅｄｔｏａｃｃｅｐｔｉｔ・Itwouldbeinteresting tocomparehowJapanesestudents,wholackthesamemetaphoricalprim‐
ingfromtheJapaneselanguage,respondtothesameidea、
TheJapaneseexpressionclosestinｍｅａｎｉｎｇｔｏｔｈｅＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＬＥＴＯＦＦ ＳＴＥＡＭmetaphormightbe:うっぷんをはらすz4PP"〃ｏｈａmszJ（anger/re‐
sentmentclear)．Ｂｕｔｉｔｉｓｎｏｔｒｅａｌｌｙｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｈｉｎｇ、InJapanese,ａｎｙ satisfactionthatfonowstheactof””〃ｏﾉｉａｍｓ秘might,aswithletting offsteam,resultfromphysicallyexpressingandtherebyreleasinganger，
ｂｕｔｉｔｉｓｍｏｒｅｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏｃｏｍｅｆｒｏｍｔｈｅfactthattheactorhasstruckback
iｎｓｏｍｅｗａｙａｔｔｈｅｏｂｊｅｃｔｏｆｈｉｓ/herangerandgainedrevengeltisa darkerandmorenegativekindofsatisfaction・ＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＬＥＴＯＦＦＳＴＥＡＭ，
ｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ,isapositiveactivitydesignedtorelievepersonalpres‐
ｓｕｒｅ
Ｏｒｉｓｉｔ？Intruth,ｔｈｅＬＥＴＯＦＦＳＴＥＡＭｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｍａｙａｃｔｕａllyrep‐
resentself､justificationorself-deceptionratherthanpsychologicalreality・
ChancesareⅢatsomeleveLthefeelingsofsatisfaction,realorimagined, thataccruetoAmericanswholetoffsteamortoJapanesewhoz4PPzmo hq、s脚,ａｒｅｔｈｅｓａｍｅ,justastheangeristhesameOnlytheillusionson whichthemetaphorsarebased,ortheculturalmythsinwhichthemeta‐
phorsareembedded,aredifferent・AtadeeperleveLthen,respective
metaphorsfromthetwolanguagesmayexpresssomethingsimilar,butat
alevelclosertoourconscioｕｓunderstanding,theyaredifferentbecause
ofthewaytheyinteractwiththeentireculturalsystemtheyarepartof
326
Theculturallyappropriatewaysofhandlingangeraredifferentin
JapanandAmericasotheconnotationsattachedtosimilarmetaphorsare
different・Inbothlanguagesonecanexpress/mmuzzse7worsuppress／oscze7wemotions，Ｓｉｍilarexperienceswiththephysicalworldhaveledto similarmetaphorsThosesimilarmetaphors,however,aregivendifferent connotationsbｙｔｈｅｔｗｏｃｕｌｔｕｒｅｓｌｆｗｅａｓｓｕｍｅｔｈａｔｍetaphorslikeex‐
press/Zzmmczse7wandsuppress/0sαememotionsaresomehowbasicoruni‐
versaltohumanlanguage，wemayconcludethatculturalvaluesmay changetheconnotationsofthemetaphorbutnotthemetaphoritself
Thusthepossiblechangeinconnotatiｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｈａ?qjbzcoosae?wmetaphor
inJapaneselnthiscase,theconnotationofthemetaphorapparentlychangesifthecultureitisembeddedinchanges，withoutalteringthe formofthemetaphoritselflftrue,themetaphoritselfisnotstructuring
thewayitsusersperceiveandthink，ａsperceptionscanchangeeven whilethemetaphorstaysthesamelnthecaseofthemetaphorLETOFFSTEAMhowever1theimageof
aboilerunderpressurerelievingitselfmaybepowerfulenoughthata culturalchangemakingtheconnotationinappropriatewouldprobably
resultinthelossofthemetaphorratherthanachangeinitsconnotation Ontheotherhand，thepowerofthemetaphoritselfmightinhibitany suchculturalchange・ＬＥＴＯＦＦＳＴＥＡＭｍｉｇｈｔｉｎｆａｃｔｈａｖｅＥｎｇｌish speakersfirmlyinitsmetaphoricalgraspThemetaphor“express/suppressanger'1ｄｏｅｓnotseemtostructure
howweperceivｅａｎｄｔｈｉｎｋｏｒｄｅｔｅｒｍｉｎｅｈｏｗｗｅａｃｔ，Rather,itispartof
acomplexofculturalforcesthatdoesthat,LETOFFSTEAMonthe otherhand,mayplaysuchaprominentroleinthaｔｃｏｍｐｌｅｘｔｈａｔｉｔｃｏｕｌｄ ｂｅｓａｉｄｔｏｓｔｒuctureperceptionsandthoughtsanddetermineactionsｔｏｓｏｍｅｅｘｔｅｎＬ
ＢｅｓｉｄｅｓＬＥＴＯＦＦＳＴＥＡＭ，thereareanumberofnon-systematic
metaphorsthatarenotsharedbythetwolanguagesAdetailedanalysis
ｉｓｂｅｙｏｎｄｔｈｅｓｃｏｐｅｏｆｔｈｉｓｓｈｏｒｔｐａｐｅｒｂｕｔｓｏｍｅｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｉｎｇａｎｄｃｏｍｍｏｎ ｂutnon-systematicJapanesemetaphorsthatdonIttranslatedirectlymtｏＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica 327
Englishare:甘いａｍａｉｓｗｅｅｔ,味Ｃｌ/itaste,調子cho皿shituning,卵'α）mzgD egg,響くノzi6iﾉｾz4echo,向かう腕"ﾉｾα〃facetowards．
ＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＷＡＲ,ＲＥＶＩＳＩＴＥＤ
ＬｏｎｇａｇＱａｓａｇｒａｄｕａｔｅｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｉｎＳａｎFrancisco，Iwasteaching university-boundstudentsfromothercountries・Asapreliminarytomy studyofJapanesemetaphorSltriedanexperimentwithoneparticular class、Ichosethatclassbecauseofitsmake-upTherewerel4students dividedalmostevenlyintoArabic,Chinese,andJapanesespeakersThat plusEnglishgaveme4unrelatedlanguagesfrom3differentpartsofthe globe,asamplingthatfollowsalmostperfectlytheComrierequirements forcomparativestudiesoflanguages・Iexplainedtothestudentsthe conceptofmetaphoricalstructuring・oncelwassatisfiedthattheyunder‐
stood,IwentthroughanumberofeasierLakoff-Johnsonmetaphorsand askedthｅｍｉｆｔｈｅｙｃｏｍｍｏｎｌｙｕｓｅｄｓｉｍｉｌａｒｍｅｔaphorsintheirlanguages・
Ｏｆｔｅｎｔｈｅａｎｓｗｅｒｗａｓｙｅｓ,sometimesｎＯＦｉｎａｌｌｙｗｅｇｏｔｔｏｔｈｅｆｏｕｒｍｅｔａ‐
ｐｈｏｒｓｆｏｒＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴ・Ａｌll4studentsagreedstronglythateachoftheir languagescommonlyusｅｄａｌｌｆｏｕｒ－ＷＡＲ,ＢＵＩＬＤＩＮＧＪＯＵＲＮＥＹ,ＣＯＮ‐
ＴＡＩＮＥＲ－ａｎｄｓｏｍｅｔｉｍｅｓｈａｄｕｎｅｘｐｅｃｔedlyspecificusagesincommon withEnglish，ｆｏｒexample：“Yourargumentwon，tholdwater.'，Noneof themfelttheirlanguagehadａｎｙｔｈｉｎｇｌｉｋｅｔｈｅｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳ ＤＡＮＣＥＴｈｅｙａｌｓｏａｇｒｅｅｄｔｈａｔＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＷＡＲｉｓｔｈｅｄｏｍｉｎａｎｔ ＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｌａｎｇｕａges、
ＴｈｅｉｍｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｈｅｒｅｉｓｔｈａｔＡＲＧＵＭＥNTISWARisauniversal metaphor、Ｉｆｓｏ，ｉｔｉｓｎｏｔｒｅａｌｌｙｕｓｅｆｕｌｔｏｔａｌｋａｂｏｕｔｈｏｗｃｈａｎｇｉｎｇｔｈａｔ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｗｉｌｌｃｈangeourrealitybecausetheevidencewouldindicate thattheparticularrealitｙｏｆｂｅｉｎｇａｈｕｍａｎｉｎｔｈｉｓｗｏｒｌｄｉｓｓｔｒｏｎｇｅｎｏｕｇｈ ｔｏｍａｋｅＡＲＧＭＥＮＴＩＳＷＡＲｔｈｅdefiningmetaphor,theonethatboth expressesandreveａｌｓｏｕｒｎａｔｕｒｅＦｏｒｈｕｍａｎｓ,inotherwords,ａｒｇｕｍｅｎｔ ｉｓａｌｗａｙｓａｗａｒａｎｄｎｅｖｅｒａdance・Ｉｔｗｏｕｌｄｂｅｎｉｃｅｉｆｉｔｗｅｒｅｏｔｈｅｒｗｉｓｅ，
ｏｒｉｆｗｅｃｏｕｌｄｒｅｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｏｕｒｌａｎｇｕagestoreflectthatsuperiorreality．
328
Butlinguisticevidenceindicatesｔｈａｔｔｈａｔｍａｙｎｏｔｂｅｗｉｔｈｉｎｔｈｅｒｅａｌｍof humanpossibility、
Thislittleclassroomexercisewasnothingmorethanaprovocative suggestion、Ｗｈａｔｉｓｒｅａｌｌｙｎｅｅｄｅｄｉｓａｆｕｌｌｃｏｍｐａrisonofthemetaphors usedindifferentlanguages・IincludeheresuchacomparisonforEnglish andJapanese．
ＤＩＣＴＩＯＮＡＲＹＯＦＳＹＳＴＥＭＡＴＩＣＭＥＴＡＰＨＯＲＳ
lhaveorganizedandlistedthesystematicmetaphorsdiscussedin MetaDhorsWeLiveB andcompiledaparalleldictionaryofsimilarJapa‐
nesemetaphorsltshowsthatalmostallthefundamentalsystematic metaphorsselectedbyLakoffandJohnsonhaveclosecorrespondencesin
Japanese.（WheretheydonⅢt,rveinsertedcommentsmthedictionary.）
Thissupportsmycontentionthatsystematicmetaphorstendtobeuni‐
versalwhileculturallysignificant（i・enon-universal）ｍetaphorstendto benon-systematic・Tosavespace，andwiththeassumptionthatmost readerswillbeproficientinbothEnglishandJapanese,theJapaneseex‐
amplesareuntranscribedanduntranslated．
1．ＩＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＦＯＯＤ
Thatsoundsfishytome，That，sfoodforthought，
Ｗｈａｔｈｅｓａｉｄｌｅｆｔａｂａｄｔａｓｔｅｉｎｍｙmouth、
There,ｓｔｏｏｍｕｃｈｍｔｈｉｓｂｏｏｋｆｏｒｍｅｔｏｄｉｇｅｓｔ・
Ijustcan，tswallowthat、
なにかくさいぞ！／後味が悪い。
その本を読みこなすのは難しい。
難しくて，飲み込めなかった。
‘swalloWand‘nomikomu，haveasimilarliteralmeaningandboth reflectthismetaphor,ｂｕｔｗｉｔｈａｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｎｕａｎｃｅ
２・ＩＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＰＥＯＰＬＥ
Thisfieldisstillinitsinfancy、Hisideaswillliveonforever．
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅｒｉｃａ
ＴｈａｔｋｉｎｄｏｆｔｈｉｎｋｉｎｇｄｉｅｄｏｕｔｉntheMiddleAges・
Thetheoryofrelativitygavebirthtomodernphysics・
Heisthefatherofmodernphysics Shebreathednewlifeintoanoldidea、
彼は近代物理学の父といえる。
そういうたぐいの考えは永久に生き続けるだろう。
そういった考えは中世に息絶えてしまった。
この分野はまだ未熟な分野である。
彼女は古い考えに新しい息吹きを吹き込んだ。
a１ＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＰＬＡＮＴＳ
329
Thatideawasplantedinhermindwheｎｓｈｅｗａｓｙｏｕｎｇ Ｔｈｅｓｅｅｄｓｏｆｈｅｒｇｒｅａｔideawereplantedinheryouth・
Hehasafertileimagination・Mathematicshasmanybranches・
そういう考えは幼い時に彼女の頭に植え付けられた。
AnideacanbeplantedmJapanesebut考えの種isoddHowever，
問題・話・不平・苦労・けんか・涙の種areallpossibleFertileis alsonotnormallyusedtodescribeideas,butrather豊富．
Metaphors4and5aregenerallynotusedinJapaneseMetaphors6 and7aresometimespossible,thoughnotcommon・Thesefourexamples mightprovideevidenceforsupportersofLakoff/Johnson，scontentionof theculturalsignificanceofsystematicmetaphors．
4．ＩＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＰＲＯＤＵＣＴＳ
Ｈｅ,salwaysgenerating/turningout/producingnewideas
lt，ｓｓｔｉｌｌａｒｏｕｇｈｉｄｅａｔｈａｔｎｅｅｄｓｔｏｂｅｒefined 5・ＩＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＴＨＩＮＧＳＴＯＢＵＹ
ljustcantbuythat、Howyoupackageyourideaisimportant・
InJapaneseyoucannotbuyanidea,noristhismetaphorobvious toJapanesespeakersInJapanese,however,ｙｏｕｃａｎｂｕｙａｎｄｓｅｌｌ ｆｉｇｈｔｓ・けんかを売る．買うｍｅａｎ`spoilingforafight'ａｎｄ`ac‐
ceptingthechallengetofight.,Thesearenotobvioustonativｅ
330
Englishspeakers、
6．ＩＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＦＵＥＬ
ＳｈｅｒａｎｏｕｔｏｆｉｄｅａｓＷｅ，veusedupallourideas・
Don，ｔｗａｓｔｅｙｏｕｒｉｄｅａｓｏｎｈｉｍ・Thatideawillgoalongway．
考えが尽きてしまった。
7．ＩＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＭＯＮＥＹＯＲＷＥＡＬＴＨ
That,saworthlessidea・Shehasawealthofideas・Heosrichinideas・
価値のない考えです。豊富な考えを持っている。
8．ＩＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＫＮＩＶＥＳＯＲＣＵＴＴＩＮＧＩＮＳＴＲＵＭＥＮＴＳ Ｈｅｒｗｏｒｄｓｃｕｔｒｉｇｈｔｔｏｔｈｅｈｅａｒｔｏｆｔｈemattem Hehasarazor-sharpwit・That'sanincisiveidea．
鋭い考え。あの人は頭の切れる人。
9．ＩＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＦＡＳＨＩＯＮＳ
Thatideawentoutofstyleyearsago、
Ｔｈｉｓｉｄｅａｉｓｉｎｖｏｇｕｅｔｈｅｓｅｄａｙｓ
ＷｈａｔａｒｅthenewtrendsinEnglishteaching？
Ａｎｏｕｔ・datedideaAnup-to-dateidea、
その考えは廃れてしまった。
この考えは今はやっている。時代遅れな考え。
10．ＩＤＥＡＳＨＡＶＥＤＥＰＴＨ
Thinkdeeply・Ashallowthinker．
深く考える。考えの浅い人。
1ＬＵＮＤＥＲＳＴＡＮＤＩＮＧＩＳＳＥＥＩＮＧ IＤＥＡＳＡＲＥＬＩＧＨＴＳＯＵＲＣＥＳ ＤＩＳＣＯＵＲＳＥＩＳＡＬＩＧＨＴ－ＭＥＤＩＵＭ
Ｔｍａｆｒａｉｄｌｓｅｅｔｈｉｎｇｓｑｕｉｔｅdifferently・
Theissuelooksdifferentfrommypoｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ・
Yes,Iseewhatyou，resaying.／Myoutlookonthisisdifferent・
That,sabrilliantremark・Hisideasaremurky-That1snotveryclear、
見る人が見ればすぐ分かるだろう。
話が見えてきた。心を見抜く。将来を見通す。
明るみに出す。明るみに出る。
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica 331 輝かしいetc、ｃａｎｂｅｕｓｅｄｆｏｒ成功ａｎｄ勝利butnotforideas Similarly,明るいcanbeusedtoindicateacheerfulpersonality，
butdoesnotindicateacleverperson,ａｓｂ?aigﾉzＺｄｏｅｓｉｎＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ ｌ２ＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＷＡＲ
Ｉｗｏｎ/losttheargument、Istronglydefendedmyidea lattackｅｄｅｖｅｒｙｗｅａｋｐｏｉｎｔｉｎｈｉｓａｒｇｕｍｅｎｔ、
議論に勝つ．負ける。
相手の議論の弱点を攻撃した・突いた。
13．ＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＡＣＯＮＴＡＩＮＥＲ
Yourargumentdoesn，thavemuchcontent/Won'tholdwater/isfull ofholes、
Ｉ，ｍｔｉｒｅｄｏｆｙｏｕｒｅｍｐｔｙａｒｇｕｍｅｎｔｓ、Ｔｈｉｓｉｓｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｏｆｍｙａｒｇｕｍｅｎｔ、
君の議論は中身・内容がない。
君の中身のない議論にあきた。
１４．ＴＨＥＯＲＩＥＳＡＮＤＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＳＡＲＥＢＵＩＬＤＩＮＧＳ What，sthefoundationforthistheory？
Ｈｅｄｉｄｎ'tconstructaverysolidargument、
Ｔｈｉｓｉｓｔｈｅｆｒａｍｅｗｏｒｋｏｆｍｙｔｈｅｏｒｙ・
Thistheoryneedsmoresupport、Yourargumentisshaky、
この理論の根本は何ですか？
君の理論は中身がしっかりしていない。
彼はしっかりした理論を打ち立てなかった。
Though打ち立てるliterallymeanstobuildorputupastructure itisnormallyusedonlymetaphoricallyforsuchthingsasideas andtheoriesOnlyonepartofthecompoundverb,立てる,isused foractualbuildingsSimilarly,枠組み、eanstheframeworkor structurebut,again,itisnormaUyusedonlyforabstractthings・
Onepartofthecompoundnoun,枠,isusedforactualstructures，
andsemi-concretethmgssuchasbudgets・
ｌ５ＴＨＥＯＲＩＥＳＡＮＤＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＳＡＲＥＪＯＵＲＮＥＹＳ rvesetouttoprovethispoint・
I，llproceedinastep-by-stepfashioｎｔｏｐｒｏｖｅｔｈｉｓ．
332
■
Ｗｈｅｎｌｇｅｔｔｏｍｙｎｅｘｔｐｏｉｎｔ,mygoalofprovingthiswillbeinsight．
Ithinkyou，vegoneoffinthewrongdirectionwiththatidea、
YouIrejustgoingaroundincircles・
このことについて，－歩一歩説明しましょう。
結論に到達したら，はっきり分かるでしょう。
話がちょっと横道にそれました。
議論が堂々巡りした。
l６ＬＯＶＥＡＮＤＬＩＦＥＡＲＥＪＯＵＲＮＥＹＳ
Lookhowfarwe,vecomeinourlife/relationship We,reatacrossroadsinourlife/relationship We，ｌｌｈａｖｅｔｏｇｏｏｕｒｓｅｐａｒａｔｅｗａｙｓ
ｌｔ,ｓｂｅｅｎａｌｏｎｇｂｕｍｐｙｒｏａｄ,ｂｕｔｗｅ,ｖｅｍａｄｅｉｔ・
Thisrelationshipisadead-endstreet・
Ｏｕｒmarriage/myjobisontherocks Theirloveaffairhasreallygottenofftrack rmjustspinningmywheels.／rminarut・
人生の岐路に立つ。もう昔には戻れない 関係の岐路に差し掛かった。
二人は違った道へ進まなくてはならない。
人生の道を踏み外してしまった。
世の中を渡る。世渡りが上手。
17．ＬＯＶＥＩＳＡＰＨＹＳＩＣＡＬＦＯＲＣＥ
Wegravitatedtoeachother.／Hisliferevolvesaroundher，
Ourrelationshipisstillgainingmomentum.／Ifeltdrawntoher・
お互いに惹かれあった。心を引きつけた。
l８ＬＯＶＥＩＳＡＰＡＴＩＥＮＴ
Thisisasickrelationship、Thisloveaffairisdead We,rejustgettingthismarriagebackonitsfeet・
Wehaveastrong,healthymarriage Theirrelationshｉｐｉｓｏｎｉｔｓｌａｓｔｌｅｇｓ・
二人の関係は健康的でない。
二人の付き合いは絶えてしまった。
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrｉｃａ ｌ９ＬＯＶＥＩＳＭＡＤＮＥＳＳ
333
Ｓｈｅｄｒｉｖｅｓｍｅｏｕｔｏｆｍｙｍｉｎｄ
Ｈｅ，ｓｍａｄａｂｏｕｔｈｅｒ、Ｉ，ｍｃｒａｚｙａｂｏｕｔｈｉｍ 彼は彼女に狂っている。
20．ＬＯＶＥＩＳＭＡＧＩＣ
Ｓｈｅｃａｓｔｈｅｒｓｐｅｌｌｏｖｅｒｍｅｂｕｔｎｏｗｔｈｅmagicisgone
Thismetaphorisapparentlynotnormallyorconventionallyused inJapanese・Ｉｔｃα〃ｂｅｕｓｅｄａｎｄⅢifsqisperfectlyunderstandable・
Ｂｕｔｉｔｓｏｕｎｄｓｌｉｋｅａｃｒｅａｔｉｖｅｍｅｔａｐｈorratherthanoneindaily
circulatiｏｎ ２ＬＬＯＶＥＩＳＷＡＲ
Georgｅｉｓｋｎｏｗｎｆｏｒｈｉｓｑｕｉｃｋｃｏｎｑｕｅｓｔｓ,ｂｕｔＳａｌｌｙｆｌｅｄｆｒｏｍｈｉｓａｄ
ｖａｎｃｅｓ、
Hewonherhandinmarriage.／Ｈｅｍａｄｅａｎａｌｌｙｏｆｈｅｒｍｏｔｈｅｒ、
ジョージの前では女の子はすぐに陥落してしまう。
また女の子に逃げられてしまった。
三角関係に勝って彼女をものにした。
Aswiththeseexamples,ｉｔｃｅｒｔａｉｎｌｙｓｅｅｍｓｍｏｒｅｎｏｒｍａｌｉｎｂｏth languagestohavethemaleplayinｇｔｈｅｐａｒｔｏｆｔｈｅｗａｒｌｉｋｅａｇ‐
gressor’
22．ＴＨＥＭＩＮＤＩＳＡＭＡＣＨＩＮＥ
Ｗｅ'ｒｅｓｔｉｌｌｔｒｙｉｎｇｔｏｇｒｉｎｄｏｕｔｔｈｅｓｏｌutiontothisproblem・
Thewheelsarereallyturningnow・
Mymindjustisn'tworkingtoday、
Afterhisarrest,ｈｅｂｒｏｋｅｄｏｗｎ.／rmalittlerusty・
頭がパンク状態。頭がもう働かない。
頭がさびついてきた。
23．THEMINDISABRITTLEoBJEcT
Ｙｏｕｈａｖｅｔｏｈａｎｄｌｅｈｉｍｗｉｔｈｃａｒｅｓｉｎｃehiswife0sdeath・
Shebrokeundercross-examination・
Hecrackedunderallthepressure・
ＨｅｗａｓｃｒｕｓｈｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｎｅｗｓＴｈｅｅｘｐｅｒｉenceshatteredher．
334
rmgoingtopieces・Shehasaveryfragileego、
彼女のこころは傷つきやすい。
そういう患者は注意して扱わなくてはならない。
彼は激しい口論でついに折れてしまった。
周りの人のプレッシャーが強すぎて，
その人は押しつぶされてしまった。
Alertreadersmayhavenoticedthat`mind,ｉｎｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ２２ｉｓｉｎ ｔｈｅｈｅａｄ/頭whilein23itisintheheart／心．Thereispotential
hereforacross-culturaLcross-languageinquiry､
24．ＳＩＧＮＩＦＩＣＡＮＴＩＳＢＩＧ
Thisschoolstandsheadandshouldersabovealltheothers・
She,sagiantamongwriters.／He,sabigmaninthesteelindustry・
学力の面では他の人より頭一つ抜き出ている。
ピカソは芸術界の巨人である。
その人は経済界の大物です。
25．ｓＥＥＩＮＧＩｓＴｏｕｃＨＩＮＱＥＹＥｓＡＲＥＬＩＭＢＳ
Ｈｅｓｉｔｓａｌｌｄａｙｌｏｎｇｗｉｔｈｈｉｓｅｙｅｓｇｌｕｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｔｕｂｅ Ｈｉｓｅｙｅｓｐｉｃｋｅｄｏｕｔｅｖｅrydetailofthepicture Theireyesmet.／Ican'ttakemyeyesoffofher、
目がその記事に釘付けになった。／目と目が合った。
26．ＴＨＥＥＹＥＳＡＲＥＣＯＮＴＡＩＮＥＲＳＦＯＲＴＨＥＥＭＯＴIＯＮＳ
Icouldseethefearinhiseyes.／Hereyeswerefilledwithanger・
Therewaspassioninhereyes.／Hiseyesdisplayedcompassion、
彼の目は恐怖で一杯だった。
彼女の目は怒りに燃えていた。
目が同情に満ちあふれていた。
愛情のこもった目。
27．ＬＩＦＥＩＳＡＣＯＮＴＡＩＮＥＲ
Ｇｅｔｔｈｅｍｏｓｔｏｕｔｏｆｌｉｆｅ１Ｔｈｅｒｅ，ｓｎｏｔｍｕｃｈｌｅｆｔｆｏｒｈｉｍｉｎｌｉｆｅ・
rvehadafulllife・Ｌｉｆｅｉｓｅｍｐｔｙｆｏｒｈｉｍ，
Herlifecontamedagreatdealofsorrow．
残り少ない人生だ。
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrｉｃａ ２８ＬＩＦＥＩＳＡＧＡＭＢＬＩＮＧＧＡＭＥ
335
’'1ltakemychances，Ｔｈｅｏｄｄｓａｒｅａｇａｉｎｓｔｍｅ ｌ'ｖｅｇｏｔａｎａｃｅｕｐｍｙｓｌｅｅｖｅｌｔ'satoss-up、
Ｉｔｈｉｎｋｗｅｎｅｅｄｔｏｓｗｅｅｔｅｎｔｈｅｐｏｔ、
Ｗｈｅｒｅｉｓｓｈｅｗｈｅｎｔｈｅｃｈｉｐｓａｒｅｄｏｗｎ？
That,ｓｔｈｅｌｕｃｋｏｆｔｈｅｄｒａｗ．
もう一度自分の人生にかけてみよう。
29．ＲＥＳＰＯＮＳＩＢＩＬＩＴＹＩＳＡＨＥＡＶＹＢＵＲＤＥＮ ThePresidentcarriesaheavyresponsibility・
Ｔｈａｔ，saloadoffmyshoulders・
大統領は重い責任を負っている。
重い責任をおろした。
30．ＷＯＲＤＳＡＲＥＣＯＮＴＡＩＮＥＲＳＦＯＲＭＥＡＮＴＩＮＧＳ Hiswordscarrylittlemeaning
その言葉には重要な意味は含まれていない。
ＵＰ/DOWNMetaphors
IN/ＯＵＴａｎｄＵＰ/ＤＯＷＮａｒｅｔｈｅｔｗｏｍｏｓｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｏｒｉｅntational metaphors・ＷｅｈａｖｅａｌｒｅａｄｙｌｏｏｋｅｄａｔｌＮ/ＯＵＴＨｅｒｅｗｅｗｉｌｌｌｏｏｋａｔ ＵＰ/ＤＯＷＮ．
ＨＡＰＰＹＩＳＵＰ/SＡＤＩＳＤＯＷＮ 1．
FeelingupSpiritsrise、Inhighspirits、Ｉｔｇａｖｅｍｅａｌｉｆｔ、
Feelingdown/low、Spiritssink、Fallintodepression 浮き浮きとした。気持ちが高揚する。
気が沈む。気を落とす。気が重い。
落ち込んでいる。
ＣＯＮＳＣＩＯＵＳＩＳＵＰ/ＵＮＣＯＮＳＣＩＯＵＳＩＳＤＯＷＮ 2．
Ｇｅｔｕｐ,Ｗａｋｅｕｐ,ＢｅｕｐＲｉｓｅａｎｄｓｈｉｎｅＦａｌｌａｓｌｅｅｐ・Ｄｒｏｐｏｆｆｔｏｓｌｅｅｐ・
Underhypnoses・Ｓｉｎｋｉｎｔｏａｃｏｍａ 眠りに落ちる。
336
ＨＥＡＬＴＨＡＮＤＬＩＦＥＡＲＥＵＰ/SＩＣＫＮＥＳＳＡＮＤＤＩＳＥＡＳＥＡＲＥＤＯＷＮ 3．
Ｉｎｔｈｅｐｅａｋｏｆｈｅａｌｔｈｌｎｔｏｐｓｈａｐｅ・ＦａｌｌｉｌＬＣｏｍｅｄｏｗｎｗｉｔｈａｃｏｌｄ・
Sinkingfast・Declininghealthisdeclining、
健康が落ち目になった。
ＨＡＶＩＮＧＣＯＮＴＲＯＬＯＲＦＯＲＣＥＩＳＵＰ 4．
ＢＥＩＮＧＳＵＢＪＥＣＴＴＯＣＯＮＴＲＯＬＯＲＦＯＲＣＥＩＳＤＯＷＮ
Havecontroloverit・Ｂｅｏｎｔｏｐｏｆｔｈｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎ・Beinasuperiorpo‐
sition
Attheheightofpower、BeundermycontroLFallfrompower、On
thedecline，
権力の座に這い上がる・から落ちる。
目上・目下の人。勢力が地に落ちる。
経営が落ち目になる。
ＭＯＲＥＩＳＵＰ/ＬＥＳＳＩＳＤＯＷＮ 5．
Incomerises/fallsTurnup/downtheheat・Over/undercharge・The numberofpeopleishigh/low・Thenumberofbooksboughtisgomg up/down・
給料が上がる．下がる。運賃が上がる｡下がる。
ＨＩＧＨＳＴＡＴＵＳＩＳＵＰ/ＬＯＷＳＴＡＴＵＳＩＳＤＯＷＮ 6．
High/lowstatus，Atthebottomofthesocialhierarchy、
She，srisingintheworldHe,ｓａｔｔｈｅｐｅａｋｏｆｈｉｓｃａｒｅｅｒ・
上流・下流。
ＧＯＯＤＩＳＵＰ/ＢＡＤＩＳＤＯＷＮ 7，
Hitapeak・GoingdownhilLShedoeshigh/lowqualitywork、
ＴｈｉｎｇｓａｒｅｌｏｏｋｉｎｇｕＰＴｈｉｎｇｓａｒｅａｔａｎａｌｌｔｉｍｅｌｏｗ，
調子が上がる．下がる。人生の浮き沈み。
景気が上がる．下がる。上品・下品。
泥沼から這い上がる。
ＶＩＲＴＵＥＩＳＵＰ/ＤＥＰＲＡＶＩＴＹＩＳＤＯＷＮ 8．
High-minded・Ｈｉｇｈstandards・Upright，Upstanding
Stoopingthatlowwasanunderhandedtrick1It，sbeneathmeevento consider．
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica
その人は道徳意識・道義心が高い.低い。
徳が高い．低い。道徳が地に落ちた。
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9． ?/ＥＭＯＴＩＯＮＡＬＯＲＩＲＲＡＴＵＣ Riseaboveyouremotions
High-levelintellectualdiscussion
Raisethediscussiontoarationalplane
Japanesedoesnotseemtostructurerationalityandemotionac‐
cordingtoanup/downscaleOneinformantproposed,though，
thatifitdid,theoppositeseemsmorenaturalEmotionalisup/‐
Rationalｉｓｄｏｗｎ，Thispossibilitymightbeworthdelvinginto
andanalyzing
ThefollowiｎｇＵＰ/DOWNmetaphorsarenotlistedinLakoffand
JohnsonCategorieslO,１１，１２，ａｎｄｌ３ｃａｎｂｅｆｏｕｎｄｉｎｂｏｔｈＥｎｇ‐
lishandJapanese・Cat,l4isfoundonlyinJapaneseInfact,Cat、
l4isaparticularlypowerfulandimportantmetaphorthatcould confirm,atleastinthisinstance,theLakoffianthesisthatmeta‐
ｐｈｏｒｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｓｈｏｗｗｅｔｈｉｎｋａｎｄａｃｔ．
10. LjERvousNEssISuP/cＡＬＭＮＥｓｓＩｓＤｏｗＮ
High-strungUptight・Flighty・Settledown・Ｃａｌｍｄｏｗｎ．
上がる。気が高ぶる。気持ちを落ち着かせる。落ち着いている。
11. uNDEcIDEDIsuP/DEcIDEDIsDowN Ｉｔｏｓｕｐｉｎｔｈｅａｉｒ、Thematterissettled
結論は宙に浮いたままだ。決定を下す。
１２． ｺノロロコハ
Ｈｉｓｈｅａｄｉｓｕｐｉｎｔｈｅｃｌｏｕｄｓ・She,ｓｖｅｒｙｄｏｗｎｔｏｅａｒｔｈ、
Ｈｅｈａｓｂｏｔｈｆｅｅｔｏｎｔｈｅｇｒｏｕｎｄ・
理想が高い。理想を下げる。（現実化する）
地に足を着けた生活をする。
13. ＦＩＮＡＬＴＯＵＣＨＥＳＡＲＥＵＰ
ＰＲＥＰＡＲＡＴＩＯＮＡＮＤＰＲＥＬＩＭＩＮＡＲＩＥＳＡＲＥＤＯＷＮ TopoffCrowningtouches・Laythegroundwork・
下調べ。下見。下地。下検査。下検分。下ごしらえ。下稽古。
338
DＴＨＥＲＡＮＤＤＯＩＮＧＦＯＲＯＴＨＥＲＳＡＲＥＵｒ 14.
ONEsＥＬＦＡＮＤＤｏＩＮＧＦｏＲｏＮＥｓＥＬＦＡＲＥＤｏｗＮ
上げる-ageru-raiseisthewordusedfor`givetoyouorsomeone，ｉｎ Japanese・Ｔｈｅａｃｔｏｆｇｉｖｉｎｇｔｏａｎｏｔｈｅｒｉｓｔｈｅａｃtofraisingthe presentedobjectfrｏｍｔｈｅｌｏｗｅｒｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｇｉｖｅｒｔｏthe higherpositionofthereceiver．下さるkudasaru-loweristhe wordusedfor`givetome.'上げる。下さるcanalsobethesecond elementsincompoundverbs・Ｉｎｔｈａｔｃａｓｅ上げるmeans“dofor youorsomeone.’'Ｆｏｒexample,買ってあげる（katteageru,liter‐
any:buy-raise）means"ｂｕｙｆｏｒｙｏｕｏｒｓｏｍｅｏｎｅ."Itcanmean“Ｉ ｂｕｙｆｏｒｙｏｕ”ｂｕｔnever“Ｙｏｕｂｕｙｆｏｒｍｅ.，IThemovementinthe expression“Ｙｏｕｏｒｓｏｍｅｏｎｅｂｕｙｓｆｏｒｍｅ,,ｍｕｓｔｂｅｄｏｗｎｗａｒｄｓ，
fromahigherpositiontoalower・Thecompoundverbis買って 下さる（kattekudasaru,buy-lowerlThisuseoftheUP/DOWN metaphorclearlyrelatestoUP/ＤＯＷＮｃａｔ６:ＨＩＧＨＳＴＡＴＵＳＩＳ ＵＰ/ＬＯＷＳＴＡＴＵＳＩＳＤＯＷＮ・Faceconsiderations（anotherin‐
terestingmetaphor）requirethatthespeakerraisethelistener's facebyplacinghimselfinthelowerstatusposition．
ＣＯＮＣＬＵＳＩＯＮ
LakoffandJohnsonwrite，
MetaphorsWeLiveB Ｏｎｐａｇｅｌ４４ｏｆ
`oNewmetaphorshavethepowertocreateanewreality・''０ｎｐａｇｅ５５ｔｈｅｙ ｗｒｉｔｅ,“Systematicmetaphorsaretheonesthatstructureourthoughts.，，
Ｔｈｅｙｍａｋｅｉｔｃｌｅａｒｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｏｕｔｔｈｅｂｏokthattheyconsiderthosesystem‐
aticmetaphorstobequitevariablefromculturetoculture，Accordingly，
ｍｅｍｂｅｒｓｏfdifferentculturesinevitablyseedifferentrealitiesfilteredby differentthoughtsystemsstructuredbydifferentmetaphorsfororganiz‐
ingtheirworlds、Thepowerandcross-culturalvariabilityLakoffand Johnsonproposehaveimportantimplicationstothefieldofculturalstud iesandhavebeenquiteinfluentialinthefieldoflinguistics・
However,LakoffandJohnson,assummgvariabilityandexcitedbyit，
ＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓＷｅＬｉｖｅＢｙｉｎＪａｐａｎａｎｄＡｍｅrica 339 failtoconsideruniversality・ToconfirmtheLakoff-Johnsonhypothesis，
weneedaseriesofstudiestoconfirmtheirassumptionthatsystematic metaphorsarevariableacrosscultｕｒｅｓＴｈｉｓｂｒｉｅｆｓｕｍｍａｒｙｏｆｍｙｏｗｎ ｓｔｕdies-subjecttoconfirmationbysimilarstudiesofotherlanguages- indicatesthat,ｉｎfact,systematicmetaphorstendtobequiteconsistent acrosscultureswhilenon-systematicmetaphorsaremorｅｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏｂｅ ｖａｒｉａｂｌｅＴｈｉｓｄｏｅｓｎｏｔdisprovetheLakoff-Johnsonhypothesisbut
ratherrefinesandbroadensit
Ipropose,then,thatwedistinguishbetweenuniversalmetaphorsand non-universalmetaphors,andrecognizethateachhassomethmgdifferent andimportanttotellus・Ｉｆａｒｇｕｍｅｎｔｉｓｎｏｗａｎｄａｌｗａｙｓｈａｓｂｅｅｎａｗａｒ，
hereandeverywhere,thistellsussomethingmuchdifferentthanthefact thatlettingoffsteamisgoodinAmericabutnotinJapanTheuniversal‐
iｔｙｏｆＡＲＧＵＭＥＮＴＩＳＷＡＲｗｏｕｌｄｔｅｌｌｕｓｔｈａｔｏｕｒｖｅｒｙｎａｔurerequiresus tointerpretexpresseddifferencesinopinionsorattitudesasdangerous threatsthatmusｔｂｅｄｅａｌｔｗｉｔｈ、Withoutdenyingthatsomeindividuals mayhavetranscendedthisaggressive-defensiveaspectofwhotheyara themetaphoricalevidencewouldindicatethatitis,ｉｎfact,animportant componentofhumannature、Ｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ，Americansfirmlybe‐
lievethatlettingoffsteamisgoodwhileJapanesegenerallylookdownon exhibitionsofsteam-lettingWeｈａｖｅｉｎＬＥＴＯＦＦＳＴＥＡＭｎｏｔａｎｅｘａｍ‐
ｐｌｅｏｆｈｕｍａｎｎａｔｕｒｅｂｕｔｏｆＡｍｅｒｉｃａｎｎaturaanimportantculturalidio‐
syncrasyexpressedthroughandpossiblyshapedbymetaphor、
Therearetwolevelsofmetaphor,ｔｈｅｎ,bothsignificantbutfunda‐
mentallydifferentinwhattheyreveaLUniversalmetaphors,whichtend tobesystematic，ｔｅｌｌｕｓａｂｏｕｔｈｕｍａｎｎａｔｕｒｅａｎｄｔｈｅｈｕmancondition Non-universalmetaphors,whichtendtobenon-systematic,tellusabout specificcultures,ａｎｄｍａｙｂｅｐｏｗｅｒｆｕｌｅｎｏｕｇｈｔｏａｃｔｕａｌlycreatecultural values、Bothlevels,though,areintegratedintheindividualhumanmind，
makingitimpossibletodistinguisｈｔｈｅｈｕｍａｎｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｗｉｔｈ ｅｖidencefromonlyonelanguageBysearchingforuniversalsfｒｏｍｍｕｌ‐
tiplelanguages,wecanlearnsomethingnewaboutbotｈｈｕｍａｎｎａｔｕｒｅ
３４０
andPartiCularcultUres．
(言語学・市ヶ谷教養教育センター兼任講師）● I60F｡｡｡
