VERTICAL ZONATION OF PATTERNED GROUND IN THE JAPANESE HIGH MOUNTAINS
Shuji IWATA
Abstract The patchy distribution of the vegetated patterned ground in the Pinzes pumila shrub zone and the very limited distribution of the sorted patterned ground above the Pinus pumila limit are characteristics in Mt． Shirouma・dake， Northern Japan Alps and Taisetsu Volcanic Massif， central Hokkaido． This distribution pattern is largely different from those in the European and Himalayan mountains． In Japanese mountains， the lower periglacial zone in which vegetation・covered solifluction lobes malnly occur is completely lacking． The zone above the Pinzes pumila limit in Japanese mountains correspond to the middle periglacial zone in the European and Himalayan mountains where both sorted and partly vegetation covered patterened ground occur．
1．Introduction
The area between tree line and snow line in the high mountains of the world is an important periglacial domaine． After its global extent was first studied by Troll（1944），
the vertical distribution of periglacial phenomena and their vertical zonation have been attraCting many SCientiStS intereSt．
The periglacial area of high mountains in the temperate latitude is classified roughly into two zones（e．g． Hdllermann，1967；1972；Sting1，1969；Graf，1971；Rudberg，1972；
Ellenberg，1974）：lower periglacial zone with vegetation covered periglacial forms such as vegetation・covered solifluction lobes and earth hummocks；and higher periglacial zone with vegetation−free sorted patterned ground such as stone polygons and stripes．
In the Japanese high mountains， however， the lower periglacial zone does not exist
（Koaze et al．，1974；Iwata et al，1976）． This is a very important characteristic to understand the landscape of Japanese high mountains． In this paper， I illustrate the distribution of patterned ground in Mt． Shirouma・dake and Taisetsu Volcanic Massif， as two typical examples and discuss the cause of the peculiar periglacial zonation in Japanese high mountains，
2．Significance of Periglacial Zonation
Patterned ground is formed by frost action that is fundamentally controlled by climatic
conditions， the vertical zonation of patterned ground is considered to be useful for the understanding of the global climatic conditions of the mountains（Troll，1944）． The actual frost actions， however， occur under many influences of terrestrial factors such as topographic， geologic， and vegetational conditions． These factors vary so widely with local conditions， especially in mountains， that the distribution of patterned ground in individual mountain area shows very complicated and extra zonal distribution．
Although the detailed study of these distribution patterns is very important to understand the regional periglacial environments， some simplification or generalization is necessary to compare the regional difference between periglacial environments． The vertical zoning is to be one of the best ways for this purpose．
There have been many discussion whether the periglacial limit coincides with the forest limit or the Pinzcs pumila limit（Kobayashi，1956；Koaze，1961，1965；Koizumi，1973）．
This kind of discussion， which deals with the substitute for the periglacial limit， is not the purpose of this paper． Ellenberg（1974）discussed the vertical zonation of periglacial phenomena in Japanese high mountains， but he failed to compare the Japanese periglacial zones with those in European mountains．
洛〆
Fig．1 Locality of the two studied mountains．
S：Mt． Shirouma−
dake． D：Taisetsu Volcanic Massif．
3．Vertical Zonation of the Patterned Ground in Japanese High Mountains
Patterned ground and similar periglacial phenomena are best developed in th6 following two mountains in Japan：Mt． Shirouma・dake， Northern Japan Alps， central Honshu， and Taisetsu Volcanic Massif， central Hokkaido（Fig．1）．
Vertical distribution of the patterned ground in Mt． Shirouma・dake
The crest of Mt． Shirouma−dake（2933 m a．s．1．）， in the northern part of the Northern
Japan Alps， runs in a north−south direction， showing a typical asymmetrical crest with
steep east・facing and gentle west・facing slopes． Smooth gentle slopes and low・relief
surfaces occupy the western side， while very steep slopes of the eastern side display
rugged rocky features． The areas above the forest limit are exposed to heavy snowfall
and strong westerly winds so that vegetation・free debris mantled slopes are widely
developed（Iwata，1983）．
There exist various kinds of patterned ground on the bare rubble slopes and its surroundings， Short description on the patterned ground can be found often in literature， but no collective and comprehensive work has been appeared yet．
Figure 2 shows the distribution of the patterned ground and types of surface covers．
Patterned ground mainly occurs on the vegetation−free rubble surfaces， surrounding alpine meadows， and wind−blown heath on the western side．
Many sorted stripes are formed on the top portion of the periglacial rubble slopes where freezing and thawing occur frequently， because these slopes are in almost snow・free condition throughout a year（Iwata，1983）． The stripes are distributed from the flat crest top down to the gentle slopes of less than 20°． Some sorted stripes occur on the flat bottoms of nivation hollows， and on the gentle−sloping lower end of nivational rubble slopes． Miniature sorted nets are scarcely found on flat surfaces both on periglacial and nivational rubble slopes．
The Research Group for Alpine Geomorphology（1978）reported about terraced and lobated forms that exist in this area with various morphology and dimensions． Some of their individual forms and distribution are indicated in that report． Typical stone・banked terraces are observed on the periglacial slopes of the top on Mt．
Hachiga・take， but they seem to be formed during the past cold period， in other words，
they may be fossile forms． Typical turf・banked terraces1）occur on the north−facing gentle slopes between Mt． Hachiga・take and Mt． Yukikura・dake． Turf−banked terraces oblique to the general trend of contour lines occur widely on the periglacial rubble slopes with patchy vegetation． Indistinct large lobes are common on most inclined rubble slopes， but distinct ones occur on the rubble slopes of boulder type surface rubbles． One of the examples is observed on the southwest facing slopes of the Mt． Hachiga−take summit． Transversely elongated large lobes develop on the gentle nivational slopes of cobble−pebble type surface rubbles． The formation of these lobes may be related to the subsurface erosion by melt・water from long・1asting snowpatches， but considerable solifluction surely occurs（Koaze et al．，1974）． SmaU lobes composed of cobble合ize stones are commonly formed in the patchy vegetation areas， especially around the nivational rubble slopes． They also occur associated with the turf banked terraces．
Although there is no earth hummock in this area， a few small solifluction lobes completely covered with vegetation are found in alpine meadows around snowpatches．
Figure 2 displays a complete mosaic of vegetation・free rubble slopes， Pinzcs pumila shrub， alpine meadows， patches of grassy and herbal vegetation， and fragmentary forest．
Patterned ground is distributed on the rubble slopes with the cobble−pebble type materials． Topographical situation is suitable for the formation of patterned ground on the western side， where gentle slopes widely distributed． The geologic condition is related to the patterned ground distribution through the surface materials on rubble slopes． Sorted patterned ground mostly occurs on the cobble・pebble type surface rubbles which are dominant on the rhyolite rock， while partly vegetated patterned ground is widely distributed on the il1・sorted veneer type surface rubbles which occur mainly on the slate， shale， and phillitic rocks（lwata，1983）．
According to the above mentioned features， the vertical distribution of the patterned
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Fig．3 Aschematic diagram showing the vertical distribution of the patterned ground on the western side of Mt．
Shirouma−dake．1：Sorted patterned ground，2：Turf−
banked terraces，3：Turf・banked lobes，4：Alpine meadow，5：P物％s勿挽吻shrub，6：forest．
ground was schematically illustrated as shown in Fig．3．
Vertical distribution of patterned ground in Taisetsu Vocanic Massif
Taisetsu Volcanic Massif（Daisetsu・zan2））， which constitutes the highest part of the Hokkaido， is a large lava plateau with several younger stratovolcanoes and old lava domes projecting above plateau surface． Various periglacial phenomena develop both on the plateau surface and gentle volcanic slopes in the wide area above forest limit．
Pattered ground in this massif was intensively studied by Koaze（1965）who emphasized that the patterned ground developed above the upper limit of Pinzas pumila shrub zone between 1600−2000 m in altitudes．
Various kinds of patterned ground have been reported（Table 1）， and their distribution was illustrated by Koaze（1965）and K6noya et al．（1968）． According to Koaze（1965），
more than 80％of patterned grounds develop on wind−ward crest slopes， about 15％are situated in depressions such as volcanic craters and nivation hollows， and less than 5％
are found on flat surfaces such as river terraces， seasonally submarged alluvial flats， and flat cols． The patterned grounds on wind−ward crest slopes， which are equivalent to the periglacial rubble slopes of Iwata（1983）， have sorted and partly vegetation−covered
Fig．2 Distribution of the patterned ground and related vegetation in Mt． Shirouma−dake，
the Northern Japan Alps．1：Sorted net，2：Sorted stripes，3：Sorted lobes（Stone−
banked lobes），4：Vegetation covered lobes，5：Turf−banked terraces，6：Turf−
banked lobes，7：Alpine meadow，8：Broad−leaved shrub，9：P勿鋸勿吻勿shrub，10：
Forest， Y：Yukikura・dake， H：Hachiga・take， N：Naga−ike lake， S：Mt． Shirouma−
dake（2933 m）．
features such as turf・banked terraces and polygonal networks of frost cracks． In many cases， the sorted patterned ground is formed on vegetation・free tread surfaces of the turf・banked terraces． On the bare ground in the nivation hollows and on the lake−floor，
large・scale sorted patterned ground develops． Around these bare grounds， snowpatch and hygrophytic plant communities constitute alpine meadows where turf−banked terraces and earth hummocks develop． Earth hummock fields occupy the flat surface along streams， and vegetated polygons with frost cracks are sometimes found around the earth hummock field．
Koaze（1965）has insisted that there exists no patterned ground below the limit of Pinzts pumdo shrub zone except for few cases． After the Koaze s study， however， Takakura
（1972）and Ellenberg（1976）reported many earth hummocks and turf・banked terraces in nivation hollows below the limit of Pinzts pumila shrub． Although more detailed mapping of patterend ground is required， it is safe to state that more earth hummocks and turf・banked terraces may exist in patches of alpine meadows in the Pinzts pumila zone．
Another remarkable fact on the patterened ground distribution is that both turf−banked terraces and vegetated non・sorted stripes are the most common features even on the crest・top slopes；in other words， typical sorted patterned ground is distributed only in the limited areas． The reason of this is that the greater proportion of the periglacial rubble slopes in the central part of Taisetsu Volcanic Massif was covered with the ill・sorted veneer type surface rubbles on which plant comunities can invade easily（Iwata，1983）． Wide spread distribution of the sorted patterned ground on Matsu ura・dake and Aka・dake can be explained by the wide expansion of the cobble・pebble type surface rubbles which are suitable for the formation of in the sorted patterned ground．
Although a wide blank is shown in the Koaze s map（Fig．1in Koaze，1965）between the Pinus pumila limit and the crest areas where the patterned ground develops， I observed that nearly vegetation・free rubble slopes occupy the area． Some slopes are too steep for the development of patterned ground， but others are gentle enough to bear the turf−banked lobes． Koaze classified these areas as the gentle convex slopes with many solifluction steps（Fig．3in Koaze，1972）． Figure 4 is a schematic diagram showing the vertical distribution of patterned ground in relation to landforms， the limit of Pinz｛s pumila shrub zone， and the forest limit．
Table 1． Types of patterned ground in Taisetsu Volcanic Massif Vegetation covered type Partly vegetation covered
type
Sorted type Earth hummocks
Vegetated polygon with frost cracks
Turf−banked terraces Large−scale polygonal net−
works of frost cracks
Sorted polygons Sorted cirles
（Debris islands）
Solifluction lobes Sorted stripes
Nonsorted stripes
Frost scars Sorted terraces
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Fig．4 Aschematic diagram showing the vertical distribution of the patterned ground in the central part of Taisetsu Volcanic Massif， central Hokkaido．1：Sorted patterned ground，2：
Turf・banked terraces，3：Earth hummocks，4：Turf−banked lobes，5：Alpine meadow，6：Pinus pumila shrub，7：Coniferous
forest．
Vertical zonation of patterned ground on Mt． Shirouma・dake and Taisetsu Vo亘canic Massif
In order to make the zonation of patterned ground from large scale maps showing actual distribution of phenomena， it is necessary to eliminate occasional or scattered features as extra zonal distribution．
The distribution pattern of patterned ground in Mt． Shirouma・dake is very complicated and far from zonal distribution as shown in Figs．2and 3． Sorted stripes and sorted lobes occurring as patches in the Pinus、pu〃zde shrub zone above the forest limit are too many to be eliminated as extra zonal features． On the other hand， sorted patterned ground distributed along the toP Portion of the crest is too fragmentary to be included into the zone of sorted patterned ground． As Koaze（1961）and Koizumi（1973，
1980，1983）has emphasized， these patterned ground may be a kind of summit phenomena which means an extra zonal distribution due to strong wind effects getting over the
crests，The vertical zonation in Taisetsu Volcanic Massif seems to be simpler than that in Mt．
Shirouma−dake． This may be due to the simpler topography， less snow accumulation，
and larger relative height above the forest limit in Taisetsu Volcanic Massif． Above the upper Iimit of the Pinus pumila shrub zone， a wide distribution of partly vegetated patterned ground mixed with considerable sorted form， seems to form a distinct zone．
The considerable wide distribution of sorted patterned ground around Matsu ura・dake
and Aka−dake may form a real sorted patterned ground zone， otherwise it may be
explained as a kind of summit phenomena． Koaze（1965）reported that the distribution
of the sorted features occur within the area from the local crest top down about 20 m in relative height． This limited distribution leads an explanation：the sorted features occur as a summit phenomenon only in terrains of the cobble−pebble type surface rubbles．
3．Discussion
Comparison with some other regions in the world
In European mountains patterned ground represents more distinct zonal distribution than in Japan（Ellenberg，1974，1977）． According to the observations in the Alps，
Appennines， and Pyrenees， H 611ermann（1967）divided the periglacial zone between the tree line and the snow line into 5 sub・zones（Table 2）． Nearly the same zonation was reported also in the Scandinavian mountains（Rudberg，1972）．
The vertical zonations in the Nepal Himalayas（lwata，1976；Iwata etα1．，1976）and in Chinese Tien Shan（observations by myself）are similar to the European mountains．
Above the tree」ines， earth hummocks， solifluction lobes covered with grass vegetation，
and turf・banked terraces occupy wide areas in both mountains． Shrub vegetation is distributed in patches in the Himalayas， and it is almost lacking in Tien Shan． Above the upper limlt of vegetation cover， sorted patterned ground occupies wide areas in Tien Shan and on the north slopes of the Himalayas．
Table 2 Vertical zonation of the pattemed ground and related boundaries in European and Himalayan mountains
・……一一一一ご一一…一…一………一…一一一一一…一一……Snow line−一一………一一一一………一一一一…一一…一一一一一…一一一一一一
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Zone IV
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………一一一一…一…一 @ （Zonal Straktdr rbodengrenze） 一一……一……一…一……一
乙IPPer limit of vegetation cover
謙lr盤ξZ。ne III Middl・Pe・iglaci・1・・n・withb・th・・rt・dandp・・tlyv・g・t・ti・n
covered pattemed ground
zone
−一一一………一一…………一一一…一一 @UPPer limit of shmb vegetation………一………一一…一一一…一一一
Tu o儲el。n淫゜li Z・ne II器誘盤認認h c°mpletely°「 pa「tly vegetat °n
Lower bounda2 y Of solzfZuction （Solzveufetionsuntergrenze）
Z。n。I l・n・withp・t・hydi・t・ib・ti・n・fv・g・f・ti・n・・v・・edp・tt・・n・d
ground
・一…一一…………一一…一………一一一………一一Tree line……一一…一一…一一……一一一一…一…一一一一…一…一一…
（after H611ermann，1967；Rudberg，1972；lwata et al．，1976）
In many cases， a periglacial zone between the tree line and the snow line are simply classified into two parts by the lower boundary of continuous sorted patterned ground which coincides with the upper limit of vegetation cover． The upper zone situated from the snow line to the lower boundary of continuous sorted patterned ground is sometimes called frost shatter zone ， and the lower zone situated from that boundary to the lower boundary of solifluction is simply called turf−banked solifluction zone ．
These features of the vertical zonation in Europe and Central Asia are very different from those in Japan． Disturbance of vertical zonation is one of the conspicuous characteristics of the high mountain area in Japan， as Koizumi emphasized（1980，1983）．
In order to examine the different distribution pttern between these areas， more detailed terrestrial factors that are related to the patterned ground formation should be discussed．
Positive and negative factors for the development of patterned ground
Koaze（1965）and Ellenberg（1973，1977）discussed positive and negative factors for th母 development of patterned ground in the Japanese high mountains as follows：
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a）Relatively cold winter climate influenced by the eastern Siberian air−mass；
b）Strong westerly winter winds which blow up the snow and destroy the vegetation on the top portion of windward slopes；
c）Thick snow accumulation produces vegetation−free bare ground where patterned ground can develoP；
d）Clearance of natural vegetation by artificial， volcanic， and other accidental influences．
Negative factoPts
a）Too steep slopes which cannot maintain the debris mantle；
b）Exposed bedrock and／or coverings of too large boulders；
c）Perennial or long lasting snowpatches；
d）Strong geomorphological processes such as rapid massmovements and fluvial erosion；
e）Dence vegetation such as forest， Pinus pumila shrub， and Sasa vegetation．
Among these factors， three factors， the strong westerly winds， thick snow accumulation， and dense shrub vegetation（Pinus pumila）are peculiar to the Japanese high mountains．
Importance of Pinus pumilαshrub
In Japanese high−mountain landscapes， the forest abruptly changes to the continuous Pinzts pumila shrub vegetation， except for few， small isolated patches of coniferous trees exist in the thick Pinus pumila shrub， if the topographic conditions are satisfied．
Therefore， I have adopted the word forest limit for the Japanese case instead of tree Iine for the other areas． The Pinzrs pumila shrub looks like the same shrub vegetation
（conifer Krummholz）above the tree line in Europe and Himalayas， but their ecological
position is different（Okitsu，1984）． Pinzas pumila which does not constitute the forest is
a completely different species from the trees which compose forests， and can occupy an
individual ecological niche． The area above the forest limit in Japan is continuously
covered by the Pinzts pumila shrub， while that in Europe and the Himalayas is occuppied
by the patchy shrub and meadows．
Another important difference is that the Japanese mountains have not been experienced the grazing of livestock． Both in Europe and the Central Asia， the shrub above the tree line probably was destroyed and the areas of grass vegetation increased largely by the practice of pasturage， The lack in the area of grass vegetation means that no vegetation・covered or turf・banked patterned ground can develop in the lower periglacial zone on Japanese mountains．
Pinus pu〃zila is distributed only in eastern Siberia and the surrounding areas such as the Greater Kingan Mountains， Sikhote Alin， Changbai Shan， Kamchatka， Kurilskiya Islands， Sakhalin， and Japan Islands． The same type of vertical zontion as Mt．
Shirouma・dake and Taisetsu Volcanic Massif may appear in these areas． In spite of few available literature， mountains in the neighboring areas of Japan such as Taiwan（Koaze，
1971），Korea（Ellenberg，1976b；Akagi，1978）， and Huabei（northern China）（Zhu and Cui，
1984），where Pinzas pumila does not exist， seem to represent different vertical zonations from those in Japan．
In mountains by the Sea of Japan where the prevailing westerly winds in winter bring heavy snowfall．、 Sasa kuri°lensis shrub dominates instead of the Pinus pumila shrub（θ．g．
Kikuchi，1981）． Dense rootstocks of 5薦αvegetation completely prevent the ground from frost actions．
On the contrary of the above mentioned negative factors， two positive factors， which are the abundant snow accumulation and strong winds， cause the patchy distribution of patterned ground in the lower periglacial zone． Koizumi（1973，1980，1983）has emphasized that the Japanese mountains are situated below the climatic Pinzts pumila limit that is determined theoretically． At the present state， we do not have suitable method to ascertain the Koizumi s opinion， but it is true that the Japanese mountains，
which bear sparsely scattered plants even on the highest summit of Taisetsu Volcanic Massif， are not high above the upPer limit of vegetation cover． The Japanese mountains， therefore， are considered to have no real upper periglacial zone．
4．Conclusions
Aschematic comparison between the vertical zonation of the periglacial phenomena in Japanese mountains and the European type mountains， such as the Himalayas and Tien Shan， is shown in Fig．5． From this comparison， following characteristics can be pointed out on the vertical zonation on the Japanese mountains：
1）Above the forest limit， occurs the zone with patchy distribution of sorted and non−sorted patterned ground． This zone is almost coincides with the Pin， zas pumila shrub zone． This patchy distribution pattern seems to correspond to that of Zone I in Europe，
in which vegetation covered patterned ground occur in patches． In the mountains by the
Sea of Japan such as Mt． Shirouma・dake， however， not only vegetated patterned ground
but also sorted forms occur． In this case， the lower boundary of solifluction is thought
to be located near the forest limit． Other Japanese mountains also have the patchy
distribution of patternd ground in the Pinzas pumila zone． Their distribution in these
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Fig．5 A comparison of the vertical zonation between the two Japanese mountains and the European type mountain．
mountains， however， is very limited and the lower boundary of the periglacial zone seems to coincide with the upper limit of the Pinzes pumila中rub．
2）Above the upper limit of the Pinzts pumila zone， a zone of both turf・banked terraces and sorted patterned ground appears in wide areas． This zone coresponds to the zone III in Europe which is the middle periglacial zone with both sorted and partly vegetated patterned ground．
3）Typical sorted patterned ground occurs only in limited areas on the top portion of crests． This fact means that the real upper periglacial zone with sorted patternd ground does not occur in the highest summit of the Japanese mountains， and the local descen亡 of lower boundary of continuous sorted patterned ground occurs as the summit phenomenon related to the strong wind．
The zone II in Europe， which is the lower periglacial zone with continuous distribution of completely or partly vegetated patterned ground， are completely lacking in Japanese mountains． The reason is that the alpine meadows are very limited in the Japanese high mountains， because the Pinzts pumila occupies almost all the area and the grazing of livestock has been avoided．
Acknowledgements
Iwish to dedicate this article to Professor Hiroshi Toya in commemoration of his retirement from Tokyo Metropolitan University． He has always taken encouraging interests in my works in high・mountain and polar regions as my teacher of the regional geography． He visited both Mt． Shirouma・dake and Taisetsu Volcanic Massif as a leader of the Research Group for Alpine Geomorphology in the summer of 1976．
Although the weather of that summer was incredibly bad， I and the members of the group
had great advantage of getting his advice on my and their works．
Notes
1）Turf−banked terrace in this article means a terrace with a turf bank and a vegetation−free upper surface． It is different from the complete vegetation−covered one．
2）Considerable Japanese people use the name Daisetsu・zan ， but people in Hokkaido use Taisetsu ． The legitimate name is Nutak・kamu・ushuppe， which is the old Ainu name．
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（＊in Japanese，＊＊in Japanese with Engiish abstract，＊＊＊in Japanese with German abstract，＊＊＊＊in Chinese with English abstract）
